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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 389    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 390
 391    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 392    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 393
 394    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 405    }
 406
 407    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 408        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 409        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 410        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 411        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 412        "DAYS": "DAY",
 413        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 414        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 415        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 416        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 417    }
 418
 419    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 420        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 421        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 422        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 423        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 424            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 425            if e.args.get("windows")
 426            else ""
 427        ),
 428        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 429    }
 430
 431    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 432
 433    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 434
 435    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 436    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 437
 438    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 439        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 468        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 478        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 481        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 482        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 490        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 520        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523    }
 524
 525    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 526    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 527
 528    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 529    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Command,
 531        exp.Create,
 532        exp.Delete,
 533        exp.Drop,
 534        exp.From,
 535        exp.Insert,
 536        exp.Join,
 537        exp.Select,
 538        exp.SetOperation,
 539        exp.Update,
 540        exp.Where,
 541        exp.With,
 542    )
 543
 544    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 545    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 546        exp.Binary,
 547        exp.SetOperation,
 548    )
 549
 550    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 551    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 552        exp.Column,
 553        exp.Literal,
 554        exp.Neg,
 555        exp.Paren,
 556    )
 557
 558    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 563    }
 564
 565    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 566    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 567
 568    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 569
 570    __slots__ = (
 571        "pretty",
 572        "identify",
 573        "normalize",
 574        "pad",
 575        "_indent",
 576        "normalize_functions",
 577        "unsupported_level",
 578        "max_unsupported",
 579        "leading_comma",
 580        "max_text_width",
 581        "comments",
 582        "dialect",
 583        "unsupported_messages",
 584        "_escaped_quote_end",
 585        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 586        "_next_name",
 587    )
 588
 589    def __init__(
 590        self,
 591        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 592        identify: str | bool = False,
 593        normalize: bool = False,
 594        pad: int = 2,
 595        indent: int = 2,
 596        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 597        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 598        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 599        leading_comma: bool = False,
 600        max_text_width: int = 80,
 601        comments: bool = True,
 602        dialect: DialectType = None,
 603    ):
 604        import sqlglot
 605        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 606
 607        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 608        self.identify = identify
 609        self.normalize = normalize
 610        self.pad = pad
 611        self._indent = indent
 612        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 613        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 614        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 615        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 616        self.comments = comments
 617        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 618
 619        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 620        self.normalize_functions = (
 621            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 622        )
 623
 624        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 625        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 627        )
 628        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 629            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 630        )
 631
 632        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 633
 634    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 635        """
 636        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 637
 638        Args:
 639            expression: The syntax tree.
 640            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 641                it is safer to copy.
 642
 643        Returns:
 644            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 645        """
 646        if copy:
 647            expression = expression.copy()
 648
 649        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 650
 651        self.unsupported_messages = []
 652        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 653
 654        if self.pretty:
 655            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 661            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 662                logger.warning(msg)
 663        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 664            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 665
 666        return sql
 667
 668    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 669        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 670        if (
 671            not expression.parent
 672            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 673            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 674        ):
 675            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 676
 677            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 678
 679        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 680            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 681
 682            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 683
 684        return expression
 685
 686    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 687        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 688            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 689        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 690
 691    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 693
 694    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 695        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 696
 697    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 698        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 699        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 700        return comment
 701
 702    def maybe_comment(
 703        self,
 704        sql: str,
 705        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 706        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 707        separated: bool = False,
 708    ) -> str:
 709        comments = (
 710            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 711            if self.comments
 712            else None
 713        )
 714
 715        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 716            return sql
 717
 718        comments_sql = " ".join(
 719            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 720        )
 721
 722        if not comments_sql:
 723            return sql
 724
 725        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 726
 727        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 728            return (
 729                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 730                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 731                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 732            )
 733
 734        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 735
 736    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 737        this_sql = (
 738            self.sql(expression)
 739            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 740            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        )
 742        if not this_sql:
 743            return "()"
 744
 745        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 746        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 747
 748    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 749        original = self.identify
 750        self.identify = False
 751        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 752        self.identify = original
 753        return result
 754
 755    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 756        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 757            return name.upper()
 758        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 759            return name.lower()
 760        return name
 761
 762    def indent(
 763        self,
 764        sql: str,
 765        level: int = 0,
 766        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 767        skip_first: bool = False,
 768        skip_last: bool = False,
 769    ) -> str:
 770        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 774        lines = sql.split("\n")
 775
 776        return "\n".join(
 777            (
 778                line
 779                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 780                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 781            )
 782            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 783        )
 784
 785    def sql(
 786        self,
 787        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 788        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 789        comment: bool = True,
 790    ) -> str:
 791        if not expression:
 792            return ""
 793
 794        if isinstance(expression, str):
 795            return expression
 796
 797        if key:
 798            value = expression.args.get(key)
 799            if value:
 800                return self.sql(value)
 801            return ""
 802
 803        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 804
 805        if callable(transform):
 806            sql = transform(self, expression)
 807        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 808            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 809
 810            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 811                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 812            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 813                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 814            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 815                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 816            else:
 817                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 818        else:
 819            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 820
 821        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 822
 823    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 827
 828    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 829        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 830        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        options = expression.args.get("options")
 832        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 833        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 834        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 835        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 839        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 840            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 841        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 842        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 843
 844    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        return ".".join(
 846            self.sql(part)
 847            for part in (
 848                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 849                expression.args.get("db"),
 850                expression.args.get("table"),
 851                expression.args.get("this"),
 852            )
 853            if part
 854        )
 855
 856    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 857        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 858
 859        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 860            join_mark = ""
 861            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 862
 863        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 864
 865    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 868        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 869        return f"{position}{this}"
 870
 871    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 872        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 874        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 875        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 877        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 878        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 879        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 880
 881        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 882            kind = ""
 883
 884        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 885
 886    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 889        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 890
 891    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 894            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 895        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 896            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 897        else:
 898            persisted = ""
 899        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 900
 901    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 902        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 903
 904    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 906            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 907        else:
 908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909
 910        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 911
 912    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 913        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 914    ) -> str:
 915        this = ""
 916        if expression.this is not None:
 917            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 918            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 919
 920        start = expression.args.get("start")
 921        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 922        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 923        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 924        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 925        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 926        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 927        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 928        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 929        cycle_sql = ""
 930
 931        if cycle is not None:
 932            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 933            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 934
 935        sequence_opts = ""
 936        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 937            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 938            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 939
 940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 942
 943        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 944
 945    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 946        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 947    ) -> str:
 948        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 949        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 950        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 951
 952    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 953        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 954    ) -> str:
 955        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 956
 957    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 959
 960    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 962
 963    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 965        if desc is not None:
 966            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 967        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 968
 969    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 972        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 973        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 974        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 975        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 976        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 977        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 978
 979    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 980        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 981
 982    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 984        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 985        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 986        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 987
 988        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 989
 990        properties_sql = ""
 991        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 992            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 993        ):
 994            properties_sql = self.sql(
 995                exp.Properties(
 996                    expressions=[
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 999                    ]
1000                )
1001            )
1002
1003            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1004                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1005            elif not self.pretty:
1006                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1007                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1008
1009        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1010        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1011
1012        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1013        if expression_sql:
1014            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1015
1016            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1017                postalias_props_sql = ""
1018                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1019                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1020                        exp.Properties(
1021                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1022                        ),
1023                        wrapped=False,
1024                    )
1025                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1026                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1027
1028        postindex_props_sql = ""
1029        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1030            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1031                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1032                wrapped=False,
1033                prefix=" ",
1034            )
1035
1036        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1037        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1038        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1039
1040        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1041        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1042        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1043
1044        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1045        if clustered is None:
1046            clustered_sql = ""
1047        elif clustered:
1048            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1049        else:
1050            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1051
1052        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1053        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1054            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1055                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1056                sep=" ",
1057                prefix=" ",
1058                wrapped=False,
1059            )
1060
1061        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1062
1063        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1064        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1065            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1066                exp.Properties(
1067                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1068                ),
1069                sep=" ",
1070                prefix=" ",
1071                wrapped=False,
1072            )
1073
1074        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1075        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1076        no_schema_binding = (
1077            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1078        )
1079
1080        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1081        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1082
1083        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1084        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1085
1086    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1087        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1088        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1089        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1090        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1091        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1092        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1093        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1094        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1095        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1096        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1097
1098        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1099        if cache is None:
1100            cache_str = ""
1101        elif cache is True:
1102            cache_str = " CACHE"
1103        else:
1104            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1105
1106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1108
1109        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1110
1111    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1114        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1115        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1116
1117    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1118        style = expression.args.get("style")
1119        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1120        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1121        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1122        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1123
1124    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1125        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1126        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1127
1128    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1129        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1130        if with_:
1131            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1132        return sql
1133
1134    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1135        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1136        recursive = (
1137            "RECURSIVE "
1138            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1139            else ""
1140        )
1141
1142        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1143
1144    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1145        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1146
1147        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1148        if materialized is False:
1149            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1150        elif materialized:
1151            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1152
1153        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1154
1155    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1156        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1158        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1159
1160        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1161            columns = ""
1162            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1163
1164        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1165            alias = self._next_name()
1166
1167        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1168
1169    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1174
1175    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1179        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1180
1181    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1184            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1185        return this
1186
1187    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1189        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1190
1191        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1194        else:
1195            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1196            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1197
1198        if escape:
1199            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1200            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1201        else:
1202            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1203            escape_sql = ""
1204
1205        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1206            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1207
1208        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1209
1210    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1211        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1212        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1213
1214    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1217        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1218        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1219
1220    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1221        nested = ""
1222        values = ""
1223        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1224
1225        type_value = expression.this
1226        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1227            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1228        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1229            type_sql = (
1230                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1231                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1232                else type_value
1233            )
1234        else:
1235            return interior
1236
1237        if interior:
1238            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1239                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1240                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1241                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1242                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1243                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1244            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1245                nested = f" {interior}"
1246            else:
1247                nested = f"({interior})"
1248
1249        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1250        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1251            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1253        ):
1254            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1255
1256        return type_sql
1257
1258    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1259        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1260        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1261        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1262        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1263
1264    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1267        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1268        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1270        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1271        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1272        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1273        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1274        if self.RETURNING_END:
1275            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1276        else:
1277            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1278        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1279
1280    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1283        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1284        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1285        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1286        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1287        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1288        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1289        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1290        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1291        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1292        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1293        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1294        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1295
1296    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1297        return self.set_operations(expression)
1298
1299    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1300        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1301
1302    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1303        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1304        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1305        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1306        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1307        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1308            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1309        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1310        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1311
1312    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1313        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1314            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1316            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1317
1318        agg = expression.this
1319        agg_arg = agg.this
1320        cond = expression.expression.this
1321        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1322        return self.sql(agg)
1323
1324    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1325        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1326            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1327            return ""
1328
1329        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1330
1331    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1332        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1333        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1334        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1335        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1336        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1337        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1338        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1339        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1340        if include:
1341            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1342        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1343        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1344        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1345        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1346        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1347        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1348
1349        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1350
1351    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1352        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1353        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1354        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1355        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1356        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1357        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1358        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1359
1360        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1361
1362        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1363        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1364
1365    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1366        text = expression.name
1367        lower = text.lower()
1368        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1369        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1370        if (
1371            expression.quoted
1372            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1373            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1374            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1375        ):
1376            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1377        return text
1378
1379    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1380        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1381        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1382            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1383
1384        return text
1385
1386    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1387        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1388        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1389            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1390        return text
1391
1392    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1393        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1394        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1395        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1396        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1397        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1398
1399    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1400        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1401        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1402
1403    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1404        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1405
1406    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1407        root_properties = []
1408        with_properties = []
1409
1410        for p in expression.expressions:
1411            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1412            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1413                with_properties.append(p)
1414            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1415                root_properties.append(p)
1416
1417        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1418        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1419
1420        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1421            with_props = " " + with_props
1422
1423        return root_props + with_props
1424
1425    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1426        if properties.expressions:
1427            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1428        return ""
1429
1430    def properties(
1431        self,
1432        properties: exp.Properties,
1433        prefix: str = "",
1434        sep: str = ", ",
1435        suffix: str = "",
1436        wrapped: bool = True,
1437    ) -> str:
1438        if properties.expressions:
1439            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1440            if expressions:
1441                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1442                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1443        return ""
1444
1445    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1446        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1447
1448    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1449        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1450        for p in properties.expressions:
1451            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1452            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1453                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1454            else:
1455                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1456
1457        return properties_locs
1458
1459    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1460        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1461            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1463
1464    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1465        property_cls = expression.__class__
1466        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1467            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1468
1469        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1470        if not property_name:
1471            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1472
1473        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1474
1475    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1476        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1477            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1478            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1479
1480            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1481            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1482                like = f"({like})"
1483
1484            return like
1485
1486        if expression.expressions:
1487            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1488
1489        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1490        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1491
1492    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1493        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1494        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1495        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1496
1497    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1498        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1499        local = expression.args.get("local")
1500        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1501        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1502        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1503        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1504        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1505
1506    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1507        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1509        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1510
1511    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1512        if expression.args.get("default"):
1513            property = "DEFAULT"
1514        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1515            property = "ON"
1516        else:
1517            property = "OFF"
1518        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1519
1520    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1521        if expression.args.get("no"):
1522            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1523        if expression.args.get("default"):
1524            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1525
1526        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1527        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1528
1529    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1530        default = expression.args.get("default")
1531        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1532        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1533        if default or minimum or maximum:
1534            if default:
1535                prop = "DEFAULT"
1536            elif minimum:
1537                prop = "MINIMUM"
1538            else:
1539                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1540            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1541        units = expression.args.get("units")
1542        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1543        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1544
1545    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1546        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1547        always = expression.args.get("always")
1548        default = expression.args.get("default")
1549        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1550        never = expression.args.get("never")
1551
1552        if autotemp is not None:
1553            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1554        elif always:
1555            prop = "ALWAYS"
1556        elif default:
1557            prop = "DEFAULT"
1558        elif manual:
1559            prop = "MANUAL"
1560        elif never:
1561            prop = "NEVER"
1562        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1563
1564    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1565        no = expression.args.get("no")
1566        no = " NO" if no else ""
1567        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1568        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1569        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1570        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1571        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1572
1573    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1574        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1575            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1576        if expression.this:
1577            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1579            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1580
1581        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1582        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1583        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1584
1585    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1587
1588        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1589        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1590            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1591        else:
1592            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1593
1594        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1595
1596    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1597        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1598        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1599        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1600        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1601        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1602        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1603        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1604
1605    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1606        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1607        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1608        statistics_sql = ""
1609        if statistics is not None:
1610            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1611        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1612
1613    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1616        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1617        data_consistency = (
1618            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1619        )
1620        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1621        retention_period = (
1622            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1623        )
1624
1625        if this:
1626            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1627        else:
1628            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1629
1630        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1631
1632        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1633
1634    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1635        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1636        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1637
1638        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1639            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1640        else:
1641            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1642
1643        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1644        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1645        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1646        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1647        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1648        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1649        if is_function:
1650            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1651        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1652
1653        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1654        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1655        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1656        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1657        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1658        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1659        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1660        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1661
1662        if self.RETURNING_END:
1663            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1664        else:
1665            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1666
1667        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1668        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1669        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1670        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1671
1672        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1673        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1674
1675    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1676        return self.set_operations(expression)
1677
1678    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1679        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1680
1681    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1683
1684    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1686        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1689        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1690
1691    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1692        return expression.name
1693
1694    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1695        return expression.name
1696
1697    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1698        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1699
1700        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1701        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1702
1703        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1704        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1705        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1706
1707        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1708        if expressions:
1709            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1710            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1711
1712        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1713
1714    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1715        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1716
1717    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1718        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1719        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1720        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1721        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1722        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1723        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1724        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1725        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1726        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1727        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1728        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1729        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1730        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1731
1732    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1733        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1734
1735    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1736        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1737        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1738        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1739        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1740
1741    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1744        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1745        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1746
1747    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1748        return ".".join(
1749            self.sql(part)
1750            for part in (
1751                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1752                expression.args.get("db"),
1753                expression.args.get("this"),
1754            )
1755            if part is not None
1756        )
1757
1758    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1759        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1760        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1761        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1762        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1763        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1764        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1765        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1766        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1767
1768        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1769        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1770            sample_pre_alias = sample
1771            sample_post_alias = ""
1772        else:
1773            sample_pre_alias = ""
1774            sample_post_alias = sample
1775
1776        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1777        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1778        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1779        joins = self.indent(
1780            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1781        )
1782        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1783
1784        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1785        if file_format:
1786            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1787            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1788            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1789
1790        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1791        if ordinality:
1792            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1793            alias = ""
1794
1795        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1796        if when:
1797            table = f"{table} {when}"
1798
1799        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1800        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1801
1802        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1803        if rows_from:
1804            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1805
1806        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1807
1808    def tablesample_sql(
1809        self,
1810        expression: exp.TableSample,
1811        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1812    ) -> str:
1813        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1814        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1815        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1816        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1817        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1818        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1819        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1820        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1821        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1822
1823        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1824        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1825            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1826
1827        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1828        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1829            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1830
1831        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1832        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1833            expr = f"({expr})"
1834
1835        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1836
1837    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1839
1840        if expression.this:
1841            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1842            if not expressions:
1843                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1844
1845            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1846            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1847            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1848            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1849            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1850
1851        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1853        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1854
1855        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1856        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1857            field = f"IN ({field})"
1858
1859        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1860        if include_nulls is not None:
1861            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1862        else:
1863            nulls = ""
1864
1865        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1866        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1867        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1868
1869    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1870        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1871        kind = expression.text("kind")
1872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1873        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1874
1875    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1876        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1877
1878    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1881        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1882        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1883        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1884        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1885        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1886        if self.RETURNING_END:
1887            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1888        else:
1889            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1890        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1892
1893    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1894        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1895
1896        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1897        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1898            args = self.expressions(expression)
1899            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1901            values = (
1902                f"({values})"
1903                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1904                else values
1905            )
1906            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1907
1908        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1909        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1910        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1911
1912        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1913
1914        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1915            row = tup.expressions
1916
1917            if i == 0 and column_names:
1918                row = [
1919                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1920                ]
1921
1922            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1923
1924        if self.pretty:
1925            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1926            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1927            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1928            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1929            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1930
1931        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1932        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1933        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1934
1935    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1937
1938    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1939        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1940        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1941        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1942
1943    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1944        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1947        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1948        if group_by_all is True:
1949            modifier = " ALL"
1950        elif group_by_all is False:
1951            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1952        else:
1953            modifier = ""
1954
1955        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1956
1957        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1958        grouping_sets = (
1959            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1960        )
1961
1962        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1963        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1964            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1965        else:
1966            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1967            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1968
1969        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1970        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1971            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1972        else:
1973            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1974            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1975
1976        groupings = csv(
1977            grouping_sets,
1978            cube_sql,
1979            rollup_sql,
1980            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1981            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1982        )
1983
1984        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1985            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1986
1987        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1988
1989    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1990        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1991        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1992
1993    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1994        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1995        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1996        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1997        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1998        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1999        return start + connect
2000
2001    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2002        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2003
2004    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2005        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2006            side = None
2007        else:
2008            side = expression.side
2009
2010        op_sql = " ".join(
2011            op
2012            for op in (
2013                expression.method,
2014                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2015                side,
2016                expression.kind,
2017                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2018            )
2019            if op
2020        )
2021        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2022        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2023        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2024        using = expression.args.get("using")
2025
2026        if not on_sql and using:
2027            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2028
2029        this = expression.this
2030        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2031
2032        if on_sql:
2033            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2034            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2035            if using:
2036                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2037            else:
2038                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2039        elif not op_sql:
2040            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2041                return f" {this_sql}"
2042
2043            return f", {this_sql}"
2044
2045        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2046            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2047
2048        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2049
2050    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2051        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2052        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2053        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2054
2055    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2056        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2057
2058        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2059        if cross_apply is True:
2060            op = "INNER JOIN "
2061        elif cross_apply is False:
2062            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2063        else:
2064            op = ""
2065
2066        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2067
2068    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2070
2071        if expression.args.get("view"):
2072            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2073            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2074            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2075            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2076            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2077            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2078
2079        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2080        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2081        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2082
2083    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2085
2086        args = [
2087            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2088            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2089            if e
2090        ]
2091
2092        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2093        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2094        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2095        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2096
2097        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2098
2099    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        value = expression.expression
2102        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2104        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2105        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2106
2107    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2108        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2109        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2112        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2113        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2114        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2115        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2116
2117    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2118        expressions = (
2119            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2120        )
2121        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2122        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2123
2124    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2125        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2126
2127    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2128        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2129            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2130            return ""
2131
2132        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2133        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2134        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2135        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2136
2137        if wait is not None:
2138            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2139                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2140            else:
2141                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2142
2143        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2144
2145    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2146        text = expression.this or ""
2147        if expression.is_string:
2148            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2149        return text
2150
2151    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2152        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2153            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2154            text = "".join(
2155                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2156            )
2157
2158        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2159            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2160        )
2161
2162    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2163        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2164        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2165        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2166        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2167        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2168        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2169        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2170        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2171        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2172        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2173        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2174
2175    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2176        return "NULL"
2177
2178    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2179        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2180
2181    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2183        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2184        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2185        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2186
2187    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2188        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2189        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2190        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2191        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2192        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2193        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2194        interpolated_values = [
2195            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2196            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2197        ]
2198        interpolate = (
2199            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2200        )
2201        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2202
2203    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2204        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2205
2206    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2207        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2208
2209    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2210        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2211
2212    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2213        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2214        asc = not desc
2215
2216        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2217        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2218        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2219        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2220        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2221
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223
2224        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2225        nulls_sort_change = ""
2226        if nulls_first and (
2227            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2228        ):
2229            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2230        elif (
2231            nulls_last
2232            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2233            and not nulls_are_last
2234        ):
2235            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2236
2237        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2238        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2239            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2240            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2241                self.unsupported(
2242                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2243                )
2244                nulls_sort_change = ""
2245            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2246                if expression.this.is_int:
2247                    self.unsupported(
2248                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2249                    )
2250                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2251                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2252                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2253                nulls_sort_change = ""
2254
2255        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2256        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2257
2258        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2259
2260    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2261        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2262        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2263
2264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2265
2266        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2267
2268    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2269        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2270        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2271        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2272        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2273        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2274        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2275        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2276        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2277        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2278        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2279        definition_sqls = [
2280            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2281            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2282        ]
2283        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2284        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2285        body = "".join(
2286            (
2287                partition,
2288                order,
2289                measures,
2290                rows,
2291                after,
2292                pattern,
2293                define,
2294            )
2295        )
2296        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2297        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2298        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2299
2300    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2301        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2302
2303        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2304            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2305        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2306            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2307
2308        return csv(
2309            *sqls,
2310            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2311            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2313            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2314            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2315            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2318            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2319            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2320            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2321            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2322            self.options_modifier(expression),
2323            sep="",
2324        )
2325
2326    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2327        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2328        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2329
2330    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2331        return ""
2332
2333    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2334        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2335    ) -> t.List[str]:
2336        return [
2337            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2338            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2339        ]
2340
2341    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2342        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2343        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2344        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2345
2346    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2347        into = expression.args.get("into")
2348        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2349            into.pop()
2350
2351        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2352        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2353        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2355
2356        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2357        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2358            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2359            limit.pop()
2360        else:
2361            top = ""
2362
2363        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2364
2365        if kind:
2366            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2367                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2368            else:
2369                if kind == "STRUCT":
2370                    expressions = self.expressions(
2371                        sqls=[
2372                            self.sql(
2373                                exp.Struct(
2374                                    expressions=[
2375                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2376                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2377                                        else e
2378                                        for e in expression.expressions
2379                                    ]
2380                                )
2381                            )
2382                        ]
2383                    )
2384                kind = ""
2385
2386        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2387        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2388        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2389        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2390        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2391            expression,
2392            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2393            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2394            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2395        )
2396
2397        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2398
2399        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2400            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2401                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2402            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2403                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2404            else:
2405                table_kind = ""
2406            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2407
2408        return sql
2409
2410    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2413        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2414
2415    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2416        if expression.expressions:
2417            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2418        return ""
2419
2420    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2421        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2422        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2423        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2424        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2425        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2426        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2427        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2428
2429    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2432
2433    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        kind = expression.text("kind")
2436        if kind:
2437            kind = f"{kind}."
2438        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2439
2440    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2441        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2442
2443    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2444        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2445        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2446        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2447        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2448        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2449
2450    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2451        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2452        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2453
2454    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2455        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2456            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2457            order = expression.args.get("order")
2458
2459            if limit or order:
2460                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2461
2462                if limit:
2463                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2464                if order:
2465                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2466                return self.sql(select)
2467
2468        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2469        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2470
2471        while stack:
2472            node = stack.pop()
2473
2474            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2475                stack.append(node.expression)
2476                stack.append(
2477                    self.maybe_comment(
2478                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2479                        comments=node.comments,
2480                        separated=True,
2481                    )
2482                )
2483                stack.append(node.this)
2484            else:
2485                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2486
2487        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2488        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2489        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2490
2491    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2492        return self.set_operations(expression)
2493
2494    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2495        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2496        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2497        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2498        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2499
2500    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2501        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502
2503        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2504        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2505
2506        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2507            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2508                alias.append("columns", offset)
2509
2510        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2511            columns = alias.columns
2512            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2513        else:
2514            alias = self.sql(alias)
2515
2516        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2517        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2518            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2519        else:
2520            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2521                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2522            elif offset:
2523                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2524            else:
2525                suffix = alias
2526
2527        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2528
2529    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2530        return ""
2531
2532    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2533        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2534        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2535
2536    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2539        order = expression.args.get("order")
2540        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2541        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2543        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2544
2545        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2546
2547        first = expression.args.get("first")
2548        if first is None:
2549            first = ""
2550        else:
2551            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2552
2553        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2554            return f"{this} {alias}"
2555
2556        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2557        return f"{this} ({args})"
2558
2559    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2560        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2561        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2562
2563    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2565        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2566        end = (
2567            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2568            or "CURRENT ROW"
2569        )
2570        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2571
2572    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2575        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2576
2577    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2580        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2581        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2582
2583    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2584        return apply_index_offset(
2585            expression.this,
2586            expression.expressions,
2587            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2588        )
2589
2590    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2591        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2592        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2593        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2594
2595    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2596        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2597
2598    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2601            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2602                this = self.wrap(this)
2603            return f"ANY{this}"
2604        return f"ANY {this}"
2605
2606    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2607        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2608
2609    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2612
2613        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2614            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2615            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2616
2617        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2618
2619        if default:
2620            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2621
2622        statements.append("END")
2623
2624        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2625            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2626
2627        return " ".join(statements)
2628
2629    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2632        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2633
2634    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2635        order = expression.args.get("order")
2636        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2637        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2638
2639    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2641        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2642        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2643
2644    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2645        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2646
2647        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2648            func_name = "LTRIM"
2649        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2650            func_name = "RTRIM"
2651        else:
2652            func_name = "TRIM"
2653
2654        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2655
2656    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2657        args = expression.expressions
2658        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2659            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2660
2661        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2662            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2663
2664        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2665            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2666
2667        return args
2668
2669    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2670        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2671
2672        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2673        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2674            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2675
2676        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2677
2678    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2679        return self.func(
2680            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2681        )
2682
2683    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2685        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2686
2687    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2688        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2689        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2690        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2691        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2692        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2693        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2694        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2695        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2696
2697    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2698        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2699        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2700        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2701        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2702
2703    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2704        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2705
2706    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2707        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2708        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2709        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2710
2711    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2712        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2713
2714    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2715        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2716        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2717            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2718
2719        return path
2720
2721    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2722        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2723            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2724            if not callable(transform):
2725                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2726                return ""
2727
2728            return transform(self, expression)
2729
2730        if isinstance(expression, int):
2731            return str(expression)
2732
2733        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2734            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2735            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2736        else:
2737            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2738            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2739
2740        return escaped
2741
2742    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2743        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2744
2745    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2746        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2747        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2748
2749        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2750        if unique_keys is not None:
2751            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2752        else:
2753            unique_keys = ""
2754
2755        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2756        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2757        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2758        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2759
2760        return self.func(
2761            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2762            *expression.expressions,
2763            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2764        )
2765
2766    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2767        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2768
2769    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2770        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2771        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2772        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2773        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2774        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2775        return self.func(
2776            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2777        )
2778
2779    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2781        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2782        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2783        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2784        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2785        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2786        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2787        return self.func(
2788            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2789            this,
2790            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2791        )
2792
2793    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2794        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2795        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2796        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2797
2798        if nested_schema:
2799            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2800
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2803        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2804        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2805
2806    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2807        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2808
2809    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2812        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2813        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2814        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2815        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2816        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2817        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2818        return self.func(
2819            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2820        )
2821
2822    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2824        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2825        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2826        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2827        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2828        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2829
2830    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2833        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2834        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2835        with_ = (
2836            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2837            if expressions
2838            else ""
2839        )
2840        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2841
2842    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2843        query = expression.args.get("query")
2844        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2845        field = expression.args.get("field")
2846        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2847
2848        if query:
2849            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2850        elif unnest:
2851            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2852        elif field:
2853            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2854        else:
2855            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2856
2857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2858
2859    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2860        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2861
2862    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2863        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2864        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2865            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2866        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2867
2868        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2869            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2870            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2871
2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2873        if this:
2874            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2875            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2876
2877        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2878
2879    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2880        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2881
2882    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2885        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2886        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2887        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2888        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2889
2890    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2891        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2892
2893    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2894        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2895        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2896
2897    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2898        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2899        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2900        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2901        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2902
2903    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2904        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2905
2906    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2907        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2908        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2910
2911    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2912        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2913
2914        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2915        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2916
2917        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2918            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2919        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2920            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2921
2922        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2923
2924    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2925        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2926
2927    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2930        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2931
2932    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2935        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2936
2937    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2940        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2941
2942    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2943        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2944
2945    def and_sql(
2946        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2947    ) -> str:
2948        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2949
2950    def or_sql(
2951        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2952    ) -> str:
2953        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2954
2955    def xor_sql(
2956        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2957    ) -> str:
2958        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2959
2960    def connector_sql(
2961        self,
2962        expression: exp.Connector,
2963        op: str,
2964        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2965    ) -> str:
2966        if stack is not None:
2967            if expression.expressions:
2968                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2969            else:
2970                stack.append(expression.right)
2971                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2972                    for comment in expression.comments:
2973                        if comment:
2974                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2975                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2976            return op
2977
2978        stack = [expression]
2979        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2980        ops = set()
2981
2982        while stack:
2983            node = stack.pop()
2984            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2985                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2986            else:
2987                sql = self.sql(node)
2988                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2989                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2990                else:
2991                    sqls.append(sql)
2992
2993        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2994        return sep.join(sqls)
2995
2996    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2997        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2998
2999    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3000        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3001
3002    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3003        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3004
3005    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3006        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3007
3008    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3009        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3010
3011    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3012        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3013
3014    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3015        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3016        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3017        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3018        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3019        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3020        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3021        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3022
3023    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3024        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3026
3027    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3028        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3029            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3030        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3031
3032    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3034
3035    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3038        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3039        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3040        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3041        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3042
3043    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3045        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3046        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3047        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3048        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3049        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3050        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3051        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3052        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3053
3054    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3055        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3056        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3057        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3058        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3059
3060        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3061            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3062
3063        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3064
3065    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3066        return "BEGIN"
3067
3068    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3069        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3070        if chain is not None:
3071            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3072
3073        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3074
3075    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3076        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3077        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3078        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3079
3080    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3082
3083        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3084        if dtype:
3085            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3086            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3087            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3088            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3089            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3090
3091        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3092        if default:
3093            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3094
3095        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3096        if comment:
3097            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3098
3099        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3100        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3101
3102        if not drop and not allow_null:
3103            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3104
3105        if allow_null is not None:
3106            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3107            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3108
3109        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3110
3111    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3113        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3114            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3115        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3116
3117    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3118        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3120        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3121        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3122        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3123
3124    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3125        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3126            # Remove db from tables
3127            expression = expression.transform(
3128                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3129            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3131        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3132
3133    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3134        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3135        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3137        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3138
3139    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3140        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3141        return f"SET {exprs}"
3142
3143    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3144        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3145
3146        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3147            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3148        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3149            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3150        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3151            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3152        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3153            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3154        else:
3155            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3156
3157        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3158        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3159        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3160        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3162        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3163        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3164        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3165
3166    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3167        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3168            return self.expressions(
3169                expression,
3170                key="actions",
3171                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3172                skip_first=True,
3173            )
3174        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3175
3176    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3177        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3178        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3179        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3180
3181    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3182        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3183
3184    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3185        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3186
3187        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3188            case = exp.case()
3189            for arg in expression.expressions:
3190                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3191            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3192
3193        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3194
3195        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3196        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3197        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3198
3199    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3200        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3201
3202    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3203        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3204
3205    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3206        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3207        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3208        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3209        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3210
3211    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3212        return self.sql(
3213            exp.Cast(
3214                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3215                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3216            )
3217        )
3218
3219    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3220        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3221            return self.func(
3222                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3223            )
3224        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3225
3226    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3227        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3228
3229        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3230            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3231
3232        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3233            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3234                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3235
3236        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3237            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3238                return self.sql(
3239                    exp.cast(
3240                        l / r,
3241                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3242                    )
3243                )
3244
3245        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3246
3247    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3249
3250    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3252
3253    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3255
3256    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3258
3259    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3261
3262    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3264
3265    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3267
3268    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3270
3271    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3273
3274    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3276
3277    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3279
3280    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3281        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3282            return self.sql(
3283                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3284            )
3285        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3286
3287    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3289
3290    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3291        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3292
3293    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3295
3296    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3297        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3298
3299    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3300        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3301
3302    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3303        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3304
3305    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3306        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3307
3308    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3309        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3310
3311    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3312        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3313
3314    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3315        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3316
3317    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3318        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3319
3320    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3321        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3322
3323    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3324        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3325
3326    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3327        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3328            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3329            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3330
3331        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3332
3333    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3334        this = expression.this
3335        expr = expression.expression
3336
3337        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3338            this, expr = expr, this
3339        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3340            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3341                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3342
3343            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3344
3345        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3346
3347    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3348        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3349        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3351        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3352        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3353
3354    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3355        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3356        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3357        binary_type = type(expression)
3358
3359        while stack:
3360            node = stack.pop()
3361
3362            if type(node) is binary_type:
3363                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3364                if op_func:
3365                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3366
3367                stack.append(node.right)
3368                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3369                stack.append(node.left)
3370            else:
3371                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3372
3373        return "".join(sqls)
3374
3375    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3376        args = []
3377
3378        for key in expression.arg_types:
3379            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3380
3381            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3382                for value in arg_value:
3383                    args.append(value)
3384            elif arg_value is not None:
3385                args.append(arg_value)
3386
3387        if self.normalize_functions:
3388            name = expression.sql_name()
3389        else:
3390            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3391
3392        return self.func(name, *args)
3393
3394    def func(
3395        self,
3396        name: str,
3397        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3398        prefix: str = "(",
3399        suffix: str = ")",
3400    ) -> str:
3401        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3402
3403    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3404        arg_sqls = tuple(
3405            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3406        )
3407        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3408            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3409        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3410
3411    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3412        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3413
3414    def format_time(
3415        self,
3416        expression: exp.Expression,
3417        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3418        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3419    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3420        return format_time(
3421            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3422            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3423            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3424        )
3425
3426    def expressions(
3427        self,
3428        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3429        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3430        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3431        flat: bool = False,
3432        indent: bool = True,
3433        skip_first: bool = False,
3434        skip_last: bool = False,
3435        sep: str = ", ",
3436        prefix: str = "",
3437        dynamic: bool = False,
3438        new_line: bool = False,
3439    ) -> str:
3440        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3441
3442        if not expressions:
3443            return ""
3444
3445        if flat:
3446            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3447
3448        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3449        result_sqls = []
3450
3451        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3452            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3453            if not sql:
3454                continue
3455
3456            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3457
3458            if self.pretty:
3459                if self.leading_comma:
3460                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3461                else:
3462                    result_sqls.append(
3463                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3464                    )
3465            else:
3466                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3467
3468        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3469            if new_line:
3470                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3471                result_sqls.append("")
3472            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3473        else:
3474            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3475        return (
3476            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3477            if indent
3478            else result_sql
3479        )
3480
3481    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3482        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3483        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3484        if flat:
3485            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3486        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3487
3488    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3489        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3490        if not property_name:
3491            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3492        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3493
3494    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3495        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3496
3497    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3498        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3499
3500    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3502        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3503        expressions = (
3504            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3505        )
3506        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3507
3508    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3510        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3511        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3512
3513    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3514        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3515
3516    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3517        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3518        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3519        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3520        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3521
3522        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3523        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3524            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3525            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3526            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3527            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3528        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3529            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3530                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3531            else:
3532                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3533        else:
3534            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3535        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3536
3537    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3538        table = expression.this
3539        table_alias = ""
3540
3541        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3542        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3543            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3544            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3545
3546        this = self.sql(table)
3547        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3548        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3549        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3550        sep = self.sep()
3551
3552        return self.prepend_ctes(
3553            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3554        )
3555
3556    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3557        if expression.args.get("format"):
3558            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3559
3560        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3561
3562    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3563        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3564            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3565            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3566
3567        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3568        if not fmt:
3569            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3570            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3571
3572        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3573
3574    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3576        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3577        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3578        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3579        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3580
3581    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3583        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3584        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3585        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3586
3587    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3588        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3589
3590    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3591        return ""
3592
3593    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3594        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3595        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3596        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3597        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3598        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3599
3600    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3603
3604        if having:
3605            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3606
3607        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3608
3609    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3610        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3611        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3612        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3613        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3614        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3615        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3616        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3617        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3618        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3619        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3620        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3621        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3622        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3623
3624    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3625        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3626        if key_block_size:
3627            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3628
3629        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3630        if using:
3631            return f"USING {using}"
3632
3633        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3634        if parser:
3635            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3636
3637        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3638        if comment:
3639            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3640
3641        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3642        if visible is not None:
3643            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3644
3645        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3646        if engine_attr:
3647            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3648
3649        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3650        if secondary_engine_attr:
3651            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3652
3653        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3654        return ""
3655
3656    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3657        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3658        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3659
3660    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3661        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3662        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3664        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3665        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3666        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3667        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3668        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3669        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3670        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3671        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3672
3673    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3674        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3675            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3676
3677        case = exp.Case().when(
3678            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3679            expression.args["true"],
3680            copy=False,
3681        )
3682        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3683        if else_cond:
3684            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3685
3686        return self.sql(case)
3687
3688    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3690        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3691        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3692        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3693        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3694        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3695
3696    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3698
3699    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3700        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3701
3702    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3703        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3704        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3705        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3706        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3707        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3708        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3709
3710    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3712        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3713        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3714
3715    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3717        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3718        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3719
3720    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3721        arg = expression.this
3722        if not arg.type:
3723            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3724
3725            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3726
3727        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3728            return self.sql(arg)
3729
3730        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3731        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3732
3733    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3734        this = expression.this
3735        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3736            return self.sql(this)
3737
3738        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3739
3740    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3741        this = expression.this
3742        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3743            return self.sql(this)
3744
3745        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3746
3747    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3748        this = expression.this
3749        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3750
3751        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3752            return self.sql(
3753                exp.cast(
3754                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3755                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3756                )
3757            )
3758
3759        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3760            return self.sql(this)
3761
3762        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3763
3764    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3765        return self.sql(
3766            exp.func(
3767                "DATEDIFF",
3768                expression.this,
3769                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3770                "day",
3771            )
3772        )
3773
3774    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3775        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3776            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3777
3778        unit = expression.text("unit")
3779        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3780            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3781
3782        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3783
3784    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3785        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3786
3787        return self.func(
3788            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3789        )
3790
3791    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3792        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3793            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3794            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3795            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3796            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3797
3798        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3799
3800        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3801        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3802            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3803
3804        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3805
3806    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3807        expression.set(
3808            "expressions",
3809            [
3810                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3811                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3812                else e
3813                for e in expression.expressions
3814            ],
3815        )
3816
3817        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3818
3819    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3820        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3822
3823        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3824
3825    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3826        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3827        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3828
3829        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3830
3831        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3832        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3833
3834        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3835        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3836
3837        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3838        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3839
3840        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3841        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3842
3843        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3844
3845    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3846    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3847    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3848        to = expression.this
3849        value = expression.expression
3850        style = expression.args.get("style")
3851        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3852        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3853
3854        if not to or not value:
3855            return ""
3856
3857        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3858        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3859            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3860
3861        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3862        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3863
3864        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3865        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3866            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3867
3868            style_value = style.name
3869            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3870            if not converted_style:
3871                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3872
3873            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3874
3875            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3876                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3877            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3878                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3879            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3880                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3881            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3882                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3883
3884        if not transformed:
3885            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3886
3887        return self.sql(transformed)
3888
3889    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3890        this = expression.this
3891        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3892            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3893            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3894
3895        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3896            return f".{this}"
3897
3898        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3899        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3900
3901    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3902        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3903        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3904
3905    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3906        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3907            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3908
3909            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3910
3911        return expression
3912
3913    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3914        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3915            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3916            mods = sorted(
3917                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3918                key=lambda x: 0
3919                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3920                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3921            )
3922
3923            if mods:
3924                mod = mods[0]
3925                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3926                this.meta["inline"] = True
3927                mod.this.replace(this)
3928                return self.sql(expression.this)
3929
3930            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3931
3932            if agg_func:
3933                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3934
3935        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3936
3937    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3938        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3939        if self.pretty:
3940            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3941        return string
3942
3943    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3944        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3945
3946        if expression.expressions:
3947            upper = option.upper()
3948
3949            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3950            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3951
3952            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3953            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3954            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3955            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3956
3957        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3958
3959        if not value:
3960            return option
3961
3962        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3963
3964        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3965
3966    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3967        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3968        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3969            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3970            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3971            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3972        else:
3973            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3974            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3975            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3976
3977        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3978        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3979
3980        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3981        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3982
3983        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3984        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3985
3986        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3987        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3988
3989        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3990
3991    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3993        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3994
3995        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3996        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3997        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3998        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3999
4000        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4001        params = self.expressions(
4002            expression,
4003            key="params",
4004            sep=sep,
4005            new_line=True,
4006            skip_last=True,
4007            skip_first=True,
4008            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4009        )
4010
4011        if params:
4012            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4013                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4014            elif not self.pretty:
4015                params = f" {params}"
4016
4017        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4018
4019    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4020        return ""
4021
4022    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4023        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4024        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4025        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4026        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4027        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4028
4029        if filter_col or retention_period:
4030            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4031
4032        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4033
4034    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4035        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4036    ) -> str:
4037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4038        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4039        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4040        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4041
4042    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4044        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4045        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4046
4047    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4048        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4049
4050    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4052        expr = expression.expression
4053
4054        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4055            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4056            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4057        else:
4058            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4059
4060        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4061
4062    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4063        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4064            return self.sql(expression.this)
4065
4066        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4067
4068    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4069        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4070        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4071
4072        if lower and upper:
4073            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4074        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4075
4076    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4077        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4078        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4079        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4080        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4081        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4082        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4083
4084        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4085
4086    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4087        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4088
4089        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4090        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4091            fill_pattern = "' '"
4092
4093        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4094
4095    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4096        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4097        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4098
4099    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4100        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4101
4102        parent = expression.parent
4103        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4104            parent = parent.parent
4105
4106        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4107            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4108
4109        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4110            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4111
4112        return self.sql(generate_series)
4113
4114    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4115        exprs = expression.expressions
4116        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4117            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4118        else:
4119            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4120
4121        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4122
4123    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4124        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4125            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4126
4127        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4128        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4129        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4130
4131        if source_tz and timestamp:
4132            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4133                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4134            )
4135
4136        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4137
4138        return self.sql(expr)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  97        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  99        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 100        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 101        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 135        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 136        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 137        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 138        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 141        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 142        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 144        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 151        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 152        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 153        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 154        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 155        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 156        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 158        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 161    }
 162
 163    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 164    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 165    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 166
 167    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 168    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 169    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 170
 171    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 172    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 173
 174    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 175    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 176
 177    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 178    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 179
 180    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 181    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 182
 183    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 184    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 185
 186    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 187    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 188
 189    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 190    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 193    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 196    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 197
 198    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 199    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 200
 201    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 202    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 203
 204    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 205    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 206
 207    # Whether join hints should be generated
 208    JOIN_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether table hints should be generated
 211    TABLE_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether query hints should be generated
 214    QUERY_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 217    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 218
 219    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 220    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 221
 222    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 223    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 226    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 227
 228    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 229    RETURNING_END = True
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 348    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 364
 365    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 366    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 367
 368    # The HEX function name
 369    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 370
 371    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 372    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 373
 374    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 375    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 376
 377    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 378    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 379
 380    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 381    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 382
 383    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 384    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 385
 386    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 387    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 388
 389    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 390    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 391
 392    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 393    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 394
 395    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 405        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 406    }
 407
 408    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 409        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 410        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 411        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 412        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 413        "DAYS": "DAY",
 414        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 415        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 416        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 417        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 418    }
 419
 420    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 421        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 422        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 423        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 424        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 425            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 426            if e.args.get("windows")
 427            else ""
 428        ),
 429        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 430    }
 431
 432    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 433
 434    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 435
 436    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 437    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 438
 439    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 440        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 466        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 469        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 471        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 474        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 479        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 481        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 482        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 485        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 488        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 491        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 506        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 518        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 520        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 521        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524    }
 525
 526    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 527    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 528
 529    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 530    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 531        exp.Command,
 532        exp.Create,
 533        exp.Delete,
 534        exp.Drop,
 535        exp.From,
 536        exp.Insert,
 537        exp.Join,
 538        exp.Select,
 539        exp.SetOperation,
 540        exp.Update,
 541        exp.Where,
 542        exp.With,
 543    )
 544
 545    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 546    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 547        exp.Binary,
 548        exp.SetOperation,
 549    )
 550
 551    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 552    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 553        exp.Column,
 554        exp.Literal,
 555        exp.Neg,
 556        exp.Paren,
 557    )
 558
 559    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 560        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 563        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 564    }
 565
 566    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 567    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 568
 569    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 570
 571    __slots__ = (
 572        "pretty",
 573        "identify",
 574        "normalize",
 575        "pad",
 576        "_indent",
 577        "normalize_functions",
 578        "unsupported_level",
 579        "max_unsupported",
 580        "leading_comma",
 581        "max_text_width",
 582        "comments",
 583        "dialect",
 584        "unsupported_messages",
 585        "_escaped_quote_end",
 586        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 587        "_next_name",
 588    )
 589
 590    def __init__(
 591        self,
 592        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 593        identify: str | bool = False,
 594        normalize: bool = False,
 595        pad: int = 2,
 596        indent: int = 2,
 597        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 598        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 599        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 600        leading_comma: bool = False,
 601        max_text_width: int = 80,
 602        comments: bool = True,
 603        dialect: DialectType = None,
 604    ):
 605        import sqlglot
 606        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 607
 608        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 609        self.identify = identify
 610        self.normalize = normalize
 611        self.pad = pad
 612        self._indent = indent
 613        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 614        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 615        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 616        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 617        self.comments = comments
 618        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 619
 620        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 621        self.normalize_functions = (
 622            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 623        )
 624
 625        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 626        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 627            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 628        )
 629        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 630            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 631        )
 632
 633        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 634
 635    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 636        """
 637        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 638
 639        Args:
 640            expression: The syntax tree.
 641            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 642                it is safer to copy.
 643
 644        Returns:
 645            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 646        """
 647        if copy:
 648            expression = expression.copy()
 649
 650        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 651
 652        self.unsupported_messages = []
 653        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 654
 655        if self.pretty:
 656            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 657
 658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 659            return sql
 660
 661        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 662            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 663                logger.warning(msg)
 664        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 665            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 666
 667        return sql
 668
 669    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 670        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 671        if (
 672            not expression.parent
 673            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 674            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 675        ):
 676            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 677
 678            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 679
 680        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 681            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 682
 683            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 684
 685        return expression
 686
 687    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 688        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 689            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 690        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 691
 692    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 693        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 694
 695    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 696        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 697
 698    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 699        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 700        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 701        return comment
 702
 703    def maybe_comment(
 704        self,
 705        sql: str,
 706        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 707        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 708        separated: bool = False,
 709    ) -> str:
 710        comments = (
 711            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 712            if self.comments
 713            else None
 714        )
 715
 716        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 717            return sql
 718
 719        comments_sql = " ".join(
 720            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 721        )
 722
 723        if not comments_sql:
 724            return sql
 725
 726        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 727
 728        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 729            return (
 730                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 731                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 732                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 733            )
 734
 735        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 736
 737    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 738        this_sql = (
 739            self.sql(expression)
 740            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 741            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 742        )
 743        if not this_sql:
 744            return "()"
 745
 746        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 747        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 748
 749    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 750        original = self.identify
 751        self.identify = False
 752        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 753        self.identify = original
 754        return result
 755
 756    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 757        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 758            return name.upper()
 759        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 760            return name.lower()
 761        return name
 762
 763    def indent(
 764        self,
 765        sql: str,
 766        level: int = 0,
 767        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 768        skip_first: bool = False,
 769        skip_last: bool = False,
 770    ) -> str:
 771        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 772            return sql
 773
 774        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 775        lines = sql.split("\n")
 776
 777        return "\n".join(
 778            (
 779                line
 780                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 781                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 782            )
 783            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 784        )
 785
 786    def sql(
 787        self,
 788        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 789        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 790        comment: bool = True,
 791    ) -> str:
 792        if not expression:
 793            return ""
 794
 795        if isinstance(expression, str):
 796            return expression
 797
 798        if key:
 799            value = expression.args.get(key)
 800            if value:
 801                return self.sql(value)
 802            return ""
 803
 804        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 805
 806        if callable(transform):
 807            sql = transform(self, expression)
 808        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 809            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 810
 811            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 812                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 814                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 815            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 816                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 817            else:
 818                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 819        else:
 820            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 821
 822        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 823
 824    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 827        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 828
 829    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 830        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 831        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        options = expression.args.get("options")
 833        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 834        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 835        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 836        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 838
 839    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 840        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 841            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 842        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 843        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 844
 845    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 846        return ".".join(
 847            self.sql(part)
 848            for part in (
 849                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 850                expression.args.get("db"),
 851                expression.args.get("table"),
 852                expression.args.get("this"),
 853            )
 854            if part
 855        )
 856
 857    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 858        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 859
 860        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 861            join_mark = ""
 862            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 863
 864        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 865
 866    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 869        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 870        return f"{position}{this}"
 871
 872    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 873        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 875        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 876        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 877        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 878        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 879        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 880        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 881
 882        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 883            kind = ""
 884
 885        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 886
 887    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 889        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 890        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 891
 892    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 894        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 895            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 896        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 897            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 898        else:
 899            persisted = ""
 900        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 901
 902    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 903        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 904
 905    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 906        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 907            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 908        else:
 909            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910
 911        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 912
 913    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 914        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 915    ) -> str:
 916        this = ""
 917        if expression.this is not None:
 918            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 919            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 920
 921        start = expression.args.get("start")
 922        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 923        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 924        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 925        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 926        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 927        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 928        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 929        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 930        cycle_sql = ""
 931
 932        if cycle is not None:
 933            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 934            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 935
 936        sequence_opts = ""
 937        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 938            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 939            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 940
 941        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 942        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 943
 944        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 945
 946    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 947        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 948    ) -> str:
 949        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 950        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 951        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 952
 953    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 954        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 955    ) -> str:
 956        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 957
 958    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 960
 961    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 962        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 963
 964    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 966        if desc is not None:
 967            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 968        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 969
 970    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 973        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 974        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 975        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 976        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 977        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 978        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 979
 980    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 981        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 982
 983    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 984        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 985        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 986        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 987        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 988
 989        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 990
 991        properties_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 993            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 994        ):
 995            properties_sql = self.sql(
 996                exp.Properties(
 997                    expressions=[
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 999                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1000                    ]
1001                )
1002            )
1003
1004            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1005                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1006            elif not self.pretty:
1007                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1008                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1009
1010        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1011        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1012
1013        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        if expression_sql:
1015            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1016
1017            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1018                postalias_props_sql = ""
1019                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1020                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                        exp.Properties(
1022                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1023                        ),
1024                        wrapped=False,
1025                    )
1026                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1027                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1028
1029        postindex_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1031            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1033                wrapped=False,
1034                prefix=" ",
1035            )
1036
1037        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1038        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1039        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1040
1041        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1042        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1043        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1044
1045        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1046        if clustered is None:
1047            clustered_sql = ""
1048        elif clustered:
1049            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050        else:
1051            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1052
1053        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1054        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1055            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1056                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1057                sep=" ",
1058                prefix=" ",
1059                wrapped=False,
1060            )
1061
1062        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1063
1064        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1065        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1066            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1067                exp.Properties(
1068                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1069                ),
1070                sep=" ",
1071                prefix=" ",
1072                wrapped=False,
1073            )
1074
1075        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1076        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1077        no_schema_binding = (
1078            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1079        )
1080
1081        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1082        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1083
1084        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1085        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1086
1087    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1088        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1089        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1090        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1091        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1092        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1093        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1094        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1095        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1096        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1097        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1098
1099        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1100        if cache is None:
1101            cache_str = ""
1102        elif cache is True:
1103            cache_str = " CACHE"
1104        else:
1105            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1106
1107        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1108        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1109
1110        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1111
1112    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1115        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1116        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1117
1118    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1119        style = expression.args.get("style")
1120        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1121        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1122        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1123        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1124
1125    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1126        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1127        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1128
1129    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1130        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1131        if with_:
1132            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1133        return sql
1134
1135    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1136        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        recursive = (
1138            "RECURSIVE "
1139            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1140            else ""
1141        )
1142
1143        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1144
1145    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1146        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1147
1148        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1149        if materialized is False:
1150            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1151        elif materialized:
1152            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1153
1154        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1155
1156    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1157        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1159        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1160
1161        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1162            columns = ""
1163            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1164
1165        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1166            alias = self._next_name()
1167
1168        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1169
1170    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1172        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1173            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1174        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1175
1176    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1179            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1180        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1181
1182    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1185            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1186        return this
1187
1188    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1191
1192        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1193            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1194            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1195        else:
1196            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1197            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1198
1199        if escape:
1200            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1201            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1202        else:
1203            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1204            escape_sql = ""
1205
1206        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1207            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1208
1209        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1210
1211    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1212        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1213        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1214
1215    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1218        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1219        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1220
1221    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1222        nested = ""
1223        values = ""
1224        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        type_value = expression.this
1227        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1228            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1229        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1230            type_sql = (
1231                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1232                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1233                else type_value
1234            )
1235        else:
1236            return interior
1237
1238        if interior:
1239            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1240                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1241                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1242                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1243                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1244                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1245            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1246                nested = f" {interior}"
1247            else:
1248                nested = f"({interior})"
1249
1250        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1251        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1253            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1254        ):
1255            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1256
1257        return type_sql
1258
1259    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1260        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1261        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1262        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1263        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1264
1265    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1268        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1269        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1272        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1273        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1274        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1275        if self.RETURNING_END:
1276            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1277        else:
1278            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1280
1281    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1284        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1285        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1286        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1287        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1288        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1289        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1290        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1291        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1292        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1293        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1294        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1295        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1296
1297    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1298        return self.set_operations(expression)
1299
1300    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1301        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1302
1303    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1304        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1305        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1306        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1307        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1308        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1309            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1310        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1311        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1312
1313    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1314        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1315            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1317            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1318
1319        agg = expression.this
1320        agg_arg = agg.this
1321        cond = expression.expression.this
1322        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1323        return self.sql(agg)
1324
1325    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1326        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1327            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1328            return ""
1329
1330        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1331
1332    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1333        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1334        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1335        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1336        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1337        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1338        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1339        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1340        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1341        if include:
1342            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1343        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1344        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1345        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1346        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1349
1350        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1351
1352    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1353        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1354        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1355        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1356        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1358        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1359        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1360
1361        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1362
1363        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1364        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1365
1366    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1367        text = expression.name
1368        lower = text.lower()
1369        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1370        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1371        if (
1372            expression.quoted
1373            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1374            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1375            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1376        ):
1377            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1378        return text
1379
1380    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1381        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1382        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1383            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1384
1385        return text
1386
1387    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1388        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1389        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1390            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1391        return text
1392
1393    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1394        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1395        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1396        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1397        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1398        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1399
1400    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1401        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1402        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1403
1404    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1405        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1406
1407    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        root_properties = []
1409        with_properties = []
1410
1411        for p in expression.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1414                with_properties.append(p)
1415            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1416                root_properties.append(p)
1417
1418        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1419        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1420
1421        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1422            with_props = " " + with_props
1423
1424        return root_props + with_props
1425
1426    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1427        if properties.expressions:
1428            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1429        return ""
1430
1431    def properties(
1432        self,
1433        properties: exp.Properties,
1434        prefix: str = "",
1435        sep: str = ", ",
1436        suffix: str = "",
1437        wrapped: bool = True,
1438    ) -> str:
1439        if properties.expressions:
1440            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1441            if expressions:
1442                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1443                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1444        return ""
1445
1446    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1447        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1448
1449    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1450        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1451        for p in properties.expressions:
1452            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1453            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1454                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1455            else:
1456                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1457
1458        return properties_locs
1459
1460    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1462            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1464
1465    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1466        property_cls = expression.__class__
1467        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1468            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1469
1470        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1471        if not property_name:
1472            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1473
1474        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1475
1476    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1477        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1478            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1479            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1480
1481            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1482            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1483                like = f"({like})"
1484
1485            return like
1486
1487        if expression.expressions:
1488            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1489
1490        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1491        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1492
1493    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1496        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1497
1498    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1499        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1500        local = expression.args.get("local")
1501        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1502        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1503        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1504        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1505        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1506
1507    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1508        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1511
1512    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            property = "DEFAULT"
1515        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1516            property = "ON"
1517        else:
1518            property = "OFF"
1519        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1520
1521    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1522        if expression.args.get("no"):
1523            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1524        if expression.args.get("default"):
1525            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1526
1527        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1528        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1529
1530    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1533        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1534        if default or minimum or maximum:
1535            if default:
1536                prop = "DEFAULT"
1537            elif minimum:
1538                prop = "MINIMUM"
1539            else:
1540                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1541            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1542        units = expression.args.get("units")
1543        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1544        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1545
1546    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1547        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1548        always = expression.args.get("always")
1549        default = expression.args.get("default")
1550        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1551        never = expression.args.get("never")
1552
1553        if autotemp is not None:
1554            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1555        elif always:
1556            prop = "ALWAYS"
1557        elif default:
1558            prop = "DEFAULT"
1559        elif manual:
1560            prop = "MANUAL"
1561        elif never:
1562            prop = "NEVER"
1563        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1564
1565    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1566        no = expression.args.get("no")
1567        no = " NO" if no else ""
1568        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1569        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1570        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1571        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1572        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1573
1574    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1576            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1577        if expression.this:
1578            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1580            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1581
1582        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1583        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1584        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1585
1586    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588
1589        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1590        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1591            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1592        else:
1593            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1594
1595        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1596
1597    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1598        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1599        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1600        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1601        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1602        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1603        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1604        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1605
1606    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1607        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1608        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1609        statistics_sql = ""
1610        if statistics is not None:
1611            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1612        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1613
1614    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1617        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1618        data_consistency = (
1619            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1620        )
1621        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1622        retention_period = (
1623            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1624        )
1625
1626        if this:
1627            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1628        else:
1629            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1630
1631        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1632
1633        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1634
1635    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1636        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1637        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1638
1639        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1640            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1641        else:
1642            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1643
1644        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1645        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1646        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1647        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1648        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1649        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1650        if is_function:
1651            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1652        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1655        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1656        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1657        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1658        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1659        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1660        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1661        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1662
1663        if self.RETURNING_END:
1664            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1665        else:
1666            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1667
1668        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1669        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1670        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1671        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1672
1673        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1674        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1675
1676    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1677        return self.set_operations(expression)
1678
1679    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1680        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1681
1682    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1683        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1684
1685    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1686        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1687        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1690        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1691
1692    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1693        return expression.name
1694
1695    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1696        return expression.name
1697
1698    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1699        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1700
1701        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1702        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1703
1704        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1705        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1706        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1707
1708        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1709        if expressions:
1710            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1711            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1712
1713        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1714
1715    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1716        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1717
1718    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1719        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1720        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1721        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1722        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1723        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1724        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1725        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1726        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1727        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1728        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1729        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1730        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1731        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1732
1733    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1734        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1735
1736    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1737        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1738        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1739        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1740        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1741
1742    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1745        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1746        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1747
1748    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1749        return ".".join(
1750            self.sql(part)
1751            for part in (
1752                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1753                expression.args.get("db"),
1754                expression.args.get("this"),
1755            )
1756            if part is not None
1757        )
1758
1759    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1760        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1761        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1762        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1763        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1764        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1765        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1767        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1768
1769        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1770        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1771            sample_pre_alias = sample
1772            sample_post_alias = ""
1773        else:
1774            sample_pre_alias = ""
1775            sample_post_alias = sample
1776
1777        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1778        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1779        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1780        joins = self.indent(
1781            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1782        )
1783        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1784
1785        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1786        if file_format:
1787            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1788            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1789            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1790
1791        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1792        if ordinality:
1793            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1794            alias = ""
1795
1796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1797        if when:
1798            table = f"{table} {when}"
1799
1800        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1801        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1802
1803        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1804        if rows_from:
1805            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1806
1807        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1808
1809    def tablesample_sql(
1810        self,
1811        expression: exp.TableSample,
1812        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1813    ) -> str:
1814        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1815        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1816        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1817        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1818        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1819        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1820        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1821        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1822        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1823
1824        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1825        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1826            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1827
1828        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1829        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1830            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1831
1832        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1833        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1834            expr = f"({expr})"
1835
1836        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1837
1838    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1840
1841        if expression.this:
1842            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1843            if not expressions:
1844                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1845
1846            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1847            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1848            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1849            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1850            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1851
1852        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1853        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1854        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1855
1856        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1857        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1858            field = f"IN ({field})"
1859
1860        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1861        if include_nulls is not None:
1862            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1863        else:
1864            nulls = ""
1865
1866        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1867        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1868        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1869
1870    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1871        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1872        kind = expression.text("kind")
1873        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1874        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1875
1876    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1877        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1878
1879    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1882        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1883        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1884        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1885        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1886        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1887        if self.RETURNING_END:
1888            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1889        else:
1890            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1891        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1892        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1893
1894    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1895        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1896
1897        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1898        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1899            args = self.expressions(expression)
1900            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1902            values = (
1903                f"({values})"
1904                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1905                else values
1906            )
1907            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1908
1909        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1910        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1911        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1912
1913        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1914
1915        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1916            row = tup.expressions
1917
1918            if i == 0 and column_names:
1919                row = [
1920                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1921                ]
1922
1923            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1924
1925        if self.pretty:
1926            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1927            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1928            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1929            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1930            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1931
1932        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1933        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1934        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1935
1936    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1937        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1938
1939    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1940        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1941        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1942        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1943
1944    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1945        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1946
1947    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1948        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1949        if group_by_all is True:
1950            modifier = " ALL"
1951        elif group_by_all is False:
1952            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1953        else:
1954            modifier = ""
1955
1956        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1957
1958        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1959        grouping_sets = (
1960            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1961        )
1962
1963        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1964        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1965            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1966        else:
1967            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1968            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1969
1970        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1971        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1972            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1973        else:
1974            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1975            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1976
1977        groupings = csv(
1978            grouping_sets,
1979            cube_sql,
1980            rollup_sql,
1981            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1982            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1983        )
1984
1985        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1986            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1987
1988        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1989
1990    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1991        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1992        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1993
1994    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1995        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1996        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1997        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1998        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1999        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2000        return start + connect
2001
2002    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2003        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004
2005    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2006        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2007            side = None
2008        else:
2009            side = expression.side
2010
2011        op_sql = " ".join(
2012            op
2013            for op in (
2014                expression.method,
2015                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2016                side,
2017                expression.kind,
2018                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2019            )
2020            if op
2021        )
2022        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2023        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2024        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2025        using = expression.args.get("using")
2026
2027        if not on_sql and using:
2028            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2029
2030        this = expression.this
2031        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2032
2033        if on_sql:
2034            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2035            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2036            if using:
2037                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2038            else:
2039                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2040        elif not op_sql:
2041            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2042                return f" {this_sql}"
2043
2044            return f", {this_sql}"
2045
2046        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2047            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2048
2049        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2050
2051    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2052        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2053        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2054        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2055
2056    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2057        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2058
2059        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2060        if cross_apply is True:
2061            op = "INNER JOIN "
2062        elif cross_apply is False:
2063            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2064        else:
2065            op = ""
2066
2067        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2068
2069    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2071
2072        if expression.args.get("view"):
2073            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2074            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2075            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2076            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2077            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2078            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2079
2080        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2081        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2082        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2083
2084    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086
2087        args = [
2088            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2089            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2090            if e
2091        ]
2092
2093        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2094        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2095        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2096        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2097
2098        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2099
2100    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        value = expression.expression
2103        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2106        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2107
2108    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2109        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2110        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2113        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2114        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2115        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2116        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2117
2118    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2119        expressions = (
2120            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2121        )
2122        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2123        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2124
2125    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2126        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2127
2128    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2129        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2130            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2131            return ""
2132
2133        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2134        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2135        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2136        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2137
2138        if wait is not None:
2139            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2140                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2141            else:
2142                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2143
2144        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2145
2146    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2147        text = expression.this or ""
2148        if expression.is_string:
2149            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2150        return text
2151
2152    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2153        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2154            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2155            text = "".join(
2156                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2157            )
2158
2159        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2160            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2161        )
2162
2163    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2164        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2165        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2166        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2167        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2168        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2169        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2170        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2171        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2172        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2173        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2174        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2175
2176    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2177        return "NULL"
2178
2179    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2180        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2181
2182    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2184        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2185        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2186        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2187
2188    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2189        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2190        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2191        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2192        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2193        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2194        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2195        interpolated_values = [
2196            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2197            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2198        ]
2199        interpolate = (
2200            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2201        )
2202        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2203
2204    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2205        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2206
2207    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2208        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2209
2210    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2211        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2212
2213    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2214        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2215        asc = not desc
2216
2217        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2218        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2219        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2220        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2221        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2222
2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2224
2225        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2226        nulls_sort_change = ""
2227        if nulls_first and (
2228            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2229        ):
2230            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2231        elif (
2232            nulls_last
2233            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2234            and not nulls_are_last
2235        ):
2236            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2237
2238        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2239        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2240            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2241            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2242                self.unsupported(
2243                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2244                )
2245                nulls_sort_change = ""
2246            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2247                if expression.this.is_int:
2248                    self.unsupported(
2249                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2250                    )
2251                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2252                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2253                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2254                nulls_sort_change = ""
2255
2256        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2257        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2258
2259        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2260
2261    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2262        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2263        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2264
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266
2267        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2268
2269    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2270        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2271        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2272        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2273        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2274        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2275        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2276        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2277        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2278        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2279        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2280        definition_sqls = [
2281            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2282            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2283        ]
2284        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2285        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2286        body = "".join(
2287            (
2288                partition,
2289                order,
2290                measures,
2291                rows,
2292                after,
2293                pattern,
2294                define,
2295            )
2296        )
2297        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2298        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2299        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2300
2301    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2302        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2303
2304        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2305            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2306        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2307            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2308
2309        return csv(
2310            *sqls,
2311            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2312            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2313            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2314            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2315            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2318            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2319            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2320            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2321            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2322            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2323            self.options_modifier(expression),
2324            sep="",
2325        )
2326
2327    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2328        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2329        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2330
2331    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2332        return ""
2333
2334    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2335        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2336    ) -> t.List[str]:
2337        return [
2338            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2339            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2340        ]
2341
2342    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2343        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2344        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2345        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2346
2347    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2348        into = expression.args.get("into")
2349        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2350            into.pop()
2351
2352        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2353        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2354        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2355        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2356
2357        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2358        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2359            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2360            limit.pop()
2361        else:
2362            top = ""
2363
2364        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2365
2366        if kind:
2367            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2368                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2369            else:
2370                if kind == "STRUCT":
2371                    expressions = self.expressions(
2372                        sqls=[
2373                            self.sql(
2374                                exp.Struct(
2375                                    expressions=[
2376                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2377                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2378                                        else e
2379                                        for e in expression.expressions
2380                                    ]
2381                                )
2382                            )
2383                        ]
2384                    )
2385                kind = ""
2386
2387        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2388        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2389        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2390        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2391        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2392            expression,
2393            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2394            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2395            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2396        )
2397
2398        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2399
2400        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2401            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2402                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2403            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2404                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2405            else:
2406                table_kind = ""
2407            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2408
2409        return sql
2410
2411    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2414        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2415
2416    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2417        if expression.expressions:
2418            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2419        return ""
2420
2421    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2422        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2423        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2424        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2425        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2426        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2427        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2428        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2429
2430    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2433
2434    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        kind = expression.text("kind")
2437        if kind:
2438            kind = f"{kind}."
2439        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2440
2441    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2442        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2443
2444    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2445        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2446        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2447        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2448        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2449        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2450
2451    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2452        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2453        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2454
2455    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2456        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2457            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2458            order = expression.args.get("order")
2459
2460            if limit or order:
2461                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2462
2463                if limit:
2464                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2465                if order:
2466                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2467                return self.sql(select)
2468
2469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2471
2472        while stack:
2473            node = stack.pop()
2474
2475            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2476                stack.append(node.expression)
2477                stack.append(
2478                    self.maybe_comment(
2479                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2480                        comments=node.comments,
2481                        separated=True,
2482                    )
2483                )
2484                stack.append(node.this)
2485            else:
2486                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2487
2488        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2489        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2490        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2491
2492    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2493        return self.set_operations(expression)
2494
2495    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2496        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2497        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2498        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2499        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2500
2501    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2502        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503
2504        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2505        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2506
2507        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2508            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2509                alias.append("columns", offset)
2510
2511        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2512            columns = alias.columns
2513            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2514        else:
2515            alias = self.sql(alias)
2516
2517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2518        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2519            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2520        else:
2521            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2522                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2523            elif offset:
2524                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2525            else:
2526                suffix = alias
2527
2528        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2529
2530    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2531        return ""
2532
2533    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2534        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2535        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2536
2537    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2540        order = expression.args.get("order")
2541        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2542        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2543        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2544        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2545
2546        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2547
2548        first = expression.args.get("first")
2549        if first is None:
2550            first = ""
2551        else:
2552            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2553
2554        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2555            return f"{this} {alias}"
2556
2557        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2558        return f"{this} ({args})"
2559
2560    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2561        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2562        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2563
2564    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2566        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2567        end = (
2568            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2569            or "CURRENT ROW"
2570        )
2571        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2572
2573    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2576        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2577
2578    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2581        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2582        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2583
2584    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2585        return apply_index_offset(
2586            expression.this,
2587            expression.expressions,
2588            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2589        )
2590
2591    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2593        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2594        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2595
2596    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2597        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2598
2599    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2602            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2603                this = self.wrap(this)
2604            return f"ANY{this}"
2605        return f"ANY {this}"
2606
2607    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2608        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2609
2610    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2613
2614        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2615            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2616            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2617
2618        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2619
2620        if default:
2621            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2622
2623        statements.append("END")
2624
2625        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2626            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2627
2628        return " ".join(statements)
2629
2630    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2633        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2634
2635    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2636        order = expression.args.get("order")
2637        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2638        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2639
2640    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2642        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2643        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2644
2645    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2646        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2647
2648        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2649            func_name = "LTRIM"
2650        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2651            func_name = "RTRIM"
2652        else:
2653            func_name = "TRIM"
2654
2655        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2656
2657    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2658        args = expression.expressions
2659        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2660            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2661
2662        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2663            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2664
2665        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2666            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2667
2668        return args
2669
2670    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2671        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2672
2673        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2674        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2675            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2676
2677        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2678
2679    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2680        return self.func(
2681            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2682        )
2683
2684    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2686        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2687
2688    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2689        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2690        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2691        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2692        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2693        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2694        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2695        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2696        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2697
2698    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2700        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2701        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2702        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2703
2704    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2705        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2706
2707    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2708        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2709        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2710        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2711
2712    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2713        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2714
2715    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2716        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2717        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2718            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2719
2720        return path
2721
2722    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2723        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2724            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2725            if not callable(transform):
2726                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2727                return ""
2728
2729            return transform(self, expression)
2730
2731        if isinstance(expression, int):
2732            return str(expression)
2733
2734        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2735            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2736            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2737        else:
2738            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2739            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2740
2741        return escaped
2742
2743    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2745
2746    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2747        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2748        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2749
2750        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2751        if unique_keys is not None:
2752            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2753        else:
2754            unique_keys = ""
2755
2756        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2757        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2758        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2759        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2760
2761        return self.func(
2762            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2763            *expression.expressions,
2764            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2765        )
2766
2767    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2768        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2769
2770    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2771        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2772        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2773        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2774        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2775        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2778        )
2779
2780    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2783        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2784        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2785        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2786        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2787        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2788        return self.func(
2789            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2790            this,
2791            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2792        )
2793
2794    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2795        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2796        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2797        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2798
2799        if nested_schema:
2800            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2801
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2804        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2805        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2806
2807    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2808        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2809
2810    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2814        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2815        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2816        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2817        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2818        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2819        return self.func(
2820            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2821        )
2822
2823    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2827        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2828        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2829        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2830
2831    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2834        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2835        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2836        with_ = (
2837            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2838            if expressions
2839            else ""
2840        )
2841        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2842
2843    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2844        query = expression.args.get("query")
2845        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2846        field = expression.args.get("field")
2847        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2848
2849        if query:
2850            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2851        elif unnest:
2852            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2853        elif field:
2854            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2855        else:
2856            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2857
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2859
2860    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2861        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2862
2863    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2864        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2865        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2866            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2867        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2868
2869        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2870            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2871            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2872
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        if this:
2875            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2876            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2877
2878        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2879
2880    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2881        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2882
2883    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2886        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2887        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2888        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2889        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2890
2891    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2892        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2893
2894    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2895        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2896        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2897
2898    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2899        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2900        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2902        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2903
2904    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2905        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2906
2907    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2908        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2909        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2911
2912    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2913        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2914
2915        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2916        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2917
2918        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2919            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2920        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2921            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2922
2923        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2924
2925    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2927
2928    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2931        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2932
2933    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2936        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2937
2938    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2941        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2942
2943    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2945
2946    def and_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2950
2951    def or_sql(
2952        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2953    ) -> str:
2954        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2955
2956    def xor_sql(
2957        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2958    ) -> str:
2959        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2960
2961    def connector_sql(
2962        self,
2963        expression: exp.Connector,
2964        op: str,
2965        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2966    ) -> str:
2967        if stack is not None:
2968            if expression.expressions:
2969                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2970            else:
2971                stack.append(expression.right)
2972                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2973                    for comment in expression.comments:
2974                        if comment:
2975                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2976                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2977            return op
2978
2979        stack = [expression]
2980        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2981        ops = set()
2982
2983        while stack:
2984            node = stack.pop()
2985            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2986                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2987            else:
2988                sql = self.sql(node)
2989                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2990                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2991                else:
2992                    sqls.append(sql)
2993
2994        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2995        return sep.join(sqls)
2996
2997    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2999
3000    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3002
3003    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3004        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3005
3006    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3007        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3008
3009    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3010        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3011
3012    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3013        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3014
3015    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3016        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3017        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3018        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3019        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3020        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3021        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3022        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3023
3024    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3025        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3027
3028    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3029        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3030            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3031        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3032
3033    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3035
3036    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3039        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3040        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3043
3044    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3047        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3048        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3049        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3050        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3051        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3052        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3053        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3054
3055    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3056        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3057        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3058        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3059        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3060
3061        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3062            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3063
3064        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3065
3066    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3067        return "BEGIN"
3068
3069    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3070        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3071        if chain is not None:
3072            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3073
3074        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3075
3076    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3077        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3078        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3079        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3080
3081    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3083
3084        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3085        if dtype:
3086            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3087            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3088            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3089            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3090            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3091
3092        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3093        if default:
3094            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3095
3096        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3097        if comment:
3098            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3099
3100        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3101        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3102
3103        if not drop and not allow_null:
3104            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3105
3106        if allow_null is not None:
3107            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3108            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3109
3110        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3111
3112    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3115            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3116        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3117
3118    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3119        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3122        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3123        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3124
3125    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3126        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3127            # Remove db from tables
3128            expression = expression.transform(
3129                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3130            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3133
3134    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3135        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3136        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3138        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3139
3140    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3141        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3142        return f"SET {exprs}"
3143
3144    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3145        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3146
3147        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3148            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3149        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3150            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3151        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3152            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3153        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3154            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3155        else:
3156            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3157
3158        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3159        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3160        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3161        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3162        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3163        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3164        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3165        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3166
3167    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3168        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3169            return self.expressions(
3170                expression,
3171                key="actions",
3172                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3173                skip_first=True,
3174            )
3175        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3176
3177    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3178        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3179        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3180        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3181
3182    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3183        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3184
3185    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3186        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3187
3188        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3189            case = exp.case()
3190            for arg in expression.expressions:
3191                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3192            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3193
3194        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3195
3196        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3197        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3198        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3199
3200    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3201        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3202
3203    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3204        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3205
3206    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3207        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3209        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3210        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3211
3212    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3213        return self.sql(
3214            exp.Cast(
3215                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3216                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3217            )
3218        )
3219
3220    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3221        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3222            return self.func(
3223                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3224            )
3225        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3226
3227    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3228        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3229
3230        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3231            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3232
3233        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3234            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3235                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3236
3237        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3238            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3239                return self.sql(
3240                    exp.cast(
3241                        l / r,
3242                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3243                    )
3244                )
3245
3246        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3247
3248    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3250
3251    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3253
3254    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3256
3257    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3259
3260    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3262
3263    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3265
3266    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3268
3269    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3271
3272    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3274
3275    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3277
3278    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3280
3281    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3282        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3283            return self.sql(
3284                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3285            )
3286        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3287
3288    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3290
3291    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3293
3294    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3296
3297    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3299
3300    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3302
3303    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3305
3306    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3308
3309    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3311
3312    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3314
3315    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3316        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3317
3318    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3319        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3320
3321    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3323
3324    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3325        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3326
3327    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3328        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3329            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3330            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3331
3332        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3333
3334    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3335        this = expression.this
3336        expr = expression.expression
3337
3338        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3339            this, expr = expr, this
3340        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3341            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3342                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3343
3344            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3345
3346        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3347
3348    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3349        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3350        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3353        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3354
3355    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3356        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3357        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3358        binary_type = type(expression)
3359
3360        while stack:
3361            node = stack.pop()
3362
3363            if type(node) is binary_type:
3364                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3365                if op_func:
3366                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3367
3368                stack.append(node.right)
3369                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3370                stack.append(node.left)
3371            else:
3372                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3373
3374        return "".join(sqls)
3375
3376    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3377        args = []
3378
3379        for key in expression.arg_types:
3380            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3381
3382            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3383                for value in arg_value:
3384                    args.append(value)
3385            elif arg_value is not None:
3386                args.append(arg_value)
3387
3388        if self.normalize_functions:
3389            name = expression.sql_name()
3390        else:
3391            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3392
3393        return self.func(name, *args)
3394
3395    def func(
3396        self,
3397        name: str,
3398        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3399        prefix: str = "(",
3400        suffix: str = ")",
3401    ) -> str:
3402        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3403
3404    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3405        arg_sqls = tuple(
3406            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3407        )
3408        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3409            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3410        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3411
3412    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3413        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3414
3415    def format_time(
3416        self,
3417        expression: exp.Expression,
3418        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3419        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3420    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3421        return format_time(
3422            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3423            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3424            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3425        )
3426
3427    def expressions(
3428        self,
3429        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3430        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3431        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3432        flat: bool = False,
3433        indent: bool = True,
3434        skip_first: bool = False,
3435        skip_last: bool = False,
3436        sep: str = ", ",
3437        prefix: str = "",
3438        dynamic: bool = False,
3439        new_line: bool = False,
3440    ) -> str:
3441        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3442
3443        if not expressions:
3444            return ""
3445
3446        if flat:
3447            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3448
3449        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3450        result_sqls = []
3451
3452        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3453            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3454            if not sql:
3455                continue
3456
3457            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3458
3459            if self.pretty:
3460                if self.leading_comma:
3461                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3462                else:
3463                    result_sqls.append(
3464                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3465                    )
3466            else:
3467                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3468
3469        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3470            if new_line:
3471                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3472                result_sqls.append("")
3473            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3474        else:
3475            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3476        return (
3477            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3478            if indent
3479            else result_sql
3480        )
3481
3482    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3483        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3484        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3485        if flat:
3486            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3487        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3488
3489    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3490        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3491        if not property_name:
3492            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3493        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3494
3495    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3496        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3497
3498    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3499        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3500
3501    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3503        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3504        expressions = (
3505            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3506        )
3507        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3508
3509    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3512        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3513
3514    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3515        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3516
3517    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3518        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3519        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3520        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3521        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3522
3523        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3524        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3525            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3526            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3527            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3528            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3529        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3530            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3531                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3532            else:
3533                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3534        else:
3535            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3536        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3537
3538    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3539        table = expression.this
3540        table_alias = ""
3541
3542        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3543        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3544            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3545            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3546
3547        this = self.sql(table)
3548        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3549        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3550        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3551        sep = self.sep()
3552
3553        return self.prepend_ctes(
3554            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3555        )
3556
3557    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3558        if expression.args.get("format"):
3559            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3560
3561        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3562
3563    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3564        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3565            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3566            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3567
3568        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3569        if not fmt:
3570            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3571            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3572
3573        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3574
3575    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3578        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3579        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3580        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3581
3582    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3585        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3586        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3587
3588    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3590
3591    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3592        return ""
3593
3594    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3595        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3596        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3597        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3598        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3599        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3600
3601    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3604
3605        if having:
3606            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3607
3608        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3609
3610    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3611        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3612        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3613        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3614        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3615        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3616        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3617        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3618        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3619        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3620        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3621        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3622        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3623        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3624
3625    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3626        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3627        if key_block_size:
3628            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3629
3630        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3631        if using:
3632            return f"USING {using}"
3633
3634        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3635        if parser:
3636            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3637
3638        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3639        if comment:
3640            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3641
3642        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3643        if visible is not None:
3644            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3645
3646        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3647        if engine_attr:
3648            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3649
3650        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3651        if secondary_engine_attr:
3652            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3653
3654        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3655        return ""
3656
3657    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3658        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3659        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3660
3661    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3662        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3663        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3665        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3666        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3667        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3669        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3670        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3671        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3672        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3673
3674    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3675        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3676            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3677
3678        case = exp.Case().when(
3679            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3680            expression.args["true"],
3681            copy=False,
3682        )
3683        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3684        if else_cond:
3685            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3686
3687        return self.sql(case)
3688
3689    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3692        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3693        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3694        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3695        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3696
3697    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3699
3700    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3702
3703    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3704        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3705        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3706        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3707        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3708        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3709        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3710
3711    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3713        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3714        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3715
3716    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3719        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3720
3721    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3722        arg = expression.this
3723        if not arg.type:
3724            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3725
3726            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3727
3728        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3729            return self.sql(arg)
3730
3731        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3732        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3733
3734    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3735        this = expression.this
3736        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3737            return self.sql(this)
3738
3739        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3740
3741    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3742        this = expression.this
3743        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3744            return self.sql(this)
3745
3746        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3747
3748    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3749        this = expression.this
3750        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3751
3752        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3753            return self.sql(
3754                exp.cast(
3755                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3756                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3757                )
3758            )
3759
3760        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3761            return self.sql(this)
3762
3763        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3764
3765    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3766        return self.sql(
3767            exp.func(
3768                "DATEDIFF",
3769                expression.this,
3770                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3771                "day",
3772            )
3773        )
3774
3775    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3776        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3777            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3778
3779        unit = expression.text("unit")
3780        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3781            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3782
3783        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3784
3785    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3786        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3787
3788        return self.func(
3789            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3790        )
3791
3792    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3793        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3794            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3795            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3796            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3797            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3798
3799        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3800
3801        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3802        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3803            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3804
3805        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3806
3807    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3808        expression.set(
3809            "expressions",
3810            [
3811                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3812                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3813                else e
3814                for e in expression.expressions
3815            ],
3816        )
3817
3818        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3819
3820    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3821        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823
3824        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3825
3826    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3827        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3828        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3829
3830        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3831
3832        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3833        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3834
3835        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3836        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3837
3838        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3839        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3840
3841        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3842        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3843
3844        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3845
3846    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3847    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3848    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3849        to = expression.this
3850        value = expression.expression
3851        style = expression.args.get("style")
3852        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3853        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3854
3855        if not to or not value:
3856            return ""
3857
3858        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3859        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3860            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3861
3862        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3863        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3864
3865        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3866        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3867            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3868
3869            style_value = style.name
3870            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3871            if not converted_style:
3872                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3873
3874            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3875
3876            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3877                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3878            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3879                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3880            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3881                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3882            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3883                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3884
3885        if not transformed:
3886            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3887
3888        return self.sql(transformed)
3889
3890    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3891        this = expression.this
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3893            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3894            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3895
3896        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3897            return f".{this}"
3898
3899        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3900        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3901
3902    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3903        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3904        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3905
3906    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3907        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3908            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3909
3910            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3911
3912        return expression
3913
3914    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3915        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3916            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3917            mods = sorted(
3918                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3919                key=lambda x: 0
3920                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3921                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3922            )
3923
3924            if mods:
3925                mod = mods[0]
3926                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3927                this.meta["inline"] = True
3928                mod.this.replace(this)
3929                return self.sql(expression.this)
3930
3931            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3932
3933            if agg_func:
3934                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3935
3936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3937
3938    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3939        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3940        if self.pretty:
3941            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3942        return string
3943
3944    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3945        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3946
3947        if expression.expressions:
3948            upper = option.upper()
3949
3950            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3951            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3952
3953            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3954            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3955            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3956            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3957
3958        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3959
3960        if not value:
3961            return option
3962
3963        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3964
3965        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3966
3967    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3968        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3969        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3970            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3971            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3972            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3973        else:
3974            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3975            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3976            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3977
3978        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3979        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3980
3981        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3982        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3983
3984        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3985        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3986
3987        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3988        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3989
3990        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3991
3992    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3995
3996        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3997        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3998        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3999        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4000
4001        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4002        params = self.expressions(
4003            expression,
4004            key="params",
4005            sep=sep,
4006            new_line=True,
4007            skip_last=True,
4008            skip_first=True,
4009            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4010        )
4011
4012        if params:
4013            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4014                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4015            elif not self.pretty:
4016                params = f" {params}"
4017
4018        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4019
4020    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4021        return ""
4022
4023    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4024        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4025        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4026        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4027        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4028        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4029
4030        if filter_col or retention_period:
4031            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4032
4033        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4034
4035    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4036        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4037    ) -> str:
4038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4039        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4040        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4041        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4042
4043    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4045        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4046        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4047
4048    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4049        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4050
4051    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053        expr = expression.expression
4054
4055        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4056            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4057            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4058        else:
4059            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4060
4061        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4062
4063    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4064        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4065            return self.sql(expression.this)
4066
4067        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4068
4069    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4070        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4071        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4072
4073        if lower and upper:
4074            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4075        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4076
4077    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4078        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4079        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4080        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4081        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4082        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4083        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4084
4085        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4086
4087    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4088        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4089
4090        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4091        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4092            fill_pattern = "' '"
4093
4094        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4095
4096    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4097        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4098        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4099
4100    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4101        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4102
4103        parent = expression.parent
4104        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4105            parent = parent.parent
4106
4107        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4108            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4109
4110        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4111            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4112
4113        return self.sql(generate_series)
4114
4115    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4116        exprs = expression.expressions
4117        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4118            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4119        else:
4120            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4121
4122        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4123
4124    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4125        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4126            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4127
4128        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4129        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4130        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4131
4132        if source_tz and timestamp:
4133            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4134                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4135            )
4136
4137        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4138
4139        return self.sql(expr)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
590    def __init__(
591        self,
592        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
593        identify: str | bool = False,
594        normalize: bool = False,
595        pad: int = 2,
596        indent: int = 2,
597        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
598        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
599        max_unsupported: int = 3,
600        leading_comma: bool = False,
601        max_text_width: int = 80,
602        comments: bool = True,
603        dialect: DialectType = None,
604    ):
605        import sqlglot
606        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
607
608        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
609        self.identify = identify
610        self.normalize = normalize
611        self.pad = pad
612        self._indent = indent
613        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
614        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
615        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
616        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
617        self.comments = comments
618        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
619
620        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
621        self.normalize_functions = (
622            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
623        )
624
625        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
626        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
627            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
628        )
629        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
630            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
631        )
632
633        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
635    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
636        """
637        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
638
639        Args:
640            expression: The syntax tree.
641            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
642                it is safer to copy.
643
644        Returns:
645            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
646        """
647        if copy:
648            expression = expression.copy()
649
650        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
651
652        self.unsupported_messages = []
653        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
654
655        if self.pretty:
656            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
657
658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
659            return sql
660
661        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
662            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
663                logger.warning(msg)
664        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
665            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
666
667        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
669    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
670        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
671        if (
672            not expression.parent
673            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
674            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
675        ):
676            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
677
678            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
679
680        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
681            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
682
683            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
684
685        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
687    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
688        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
689            raise UnsupportedError(message)
690        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
692    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
693        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
695    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
696        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
698    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
699        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
700        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
701        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
703    def maybe_comment(
704        self,
705        sql: str,
706        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
707        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
708        separated: bool = False,
709    ) -> str:
710        comments = (
711            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
712            if self.comments
713            else None
714        )
715
716        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
717            return sql
718
719        comments_sql = " ".join(
720            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
721        )
722
723        if not comments_sql:
724            return sql
725
726        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
727
728        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
729            return (
730                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
731                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
732                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
733            )
734
735        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
737    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
738        this_sql = (
739            self.sql(expression)
740            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
741            else self.sql(expression, "this")
742        )
743        if not this_sql:
744            return "()"
745
746        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
747        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
749    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
750        original = self.identify
751        self.identify = False
752        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
753        self.identify = original
754        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
756    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
757        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
758            return name.upper()
759        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
760            return name.lower()
761        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
763    def indent(
764        self,
765        sql: str,
766        level: int = 0,
767        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
768        skip_first: bool = False,
769        skip_last: bool = False,
770    ) -> str:
771        if not self.pretty or not sql:
772            return sql
773
774        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
775        lines = sql.split("\n")
776
777        return "\n".join(
778            (
779                line
780                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
781                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
782            )
783            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
784        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
786    def sql(
787        self,
788        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
789        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
790        comment: bool = True,
791    ) -> str:
792        if not expression:
793            return ""
794
795        if isinstance(expression, str):
796            return expression
797
798        if key:
799            value = expression.args.get(key)
800            if value:
801                return self.sql(value)
802            return ""
803
804        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
805
806        if callable(transform):
807            sql = transform(self, expression)
808        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
809            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
810
811            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
812                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
814                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
815            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
816                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
817            else:
818                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
819        else:
820            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
821
822        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
824    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
827        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
829    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
830        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
831        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
832        options = expression.args.get("options")
833        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
834        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
835        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
836        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
839    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
840        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
841            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
842        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
843        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
845    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
846        return ".".join(
847            self.sql(part)
848            for part in (
849                expression.args.get("catalog"),
850                expression.args.get("db"),
851                expression.args.get("table"),
852                expression.args.get("this"),
853            )
854            if part
855        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
857    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
858        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
859
860        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
861            join_mark = ""
862            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
863
864        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
866    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
868        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
869        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
870        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
872    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
873        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
875        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
876        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
877        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
878        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
879        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
880        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
881
882        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
883            kind = ""
884
885        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
887    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
889        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
890        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
892    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
894        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
895            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
896        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
897            persisted = " PERSISTED"
898        else:
899            persisted = ""
900        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
902    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
903        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
905    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
906        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
907            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
908        else:
909            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
910
911        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
913    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
914        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
915    ) -> str:
916        this = ""
917        if expression.this is not None:
918            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
919            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
920
921        start = expression.args.get("start")
922        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
923        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
924        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
925        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
926        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
927        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
928        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
929        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
930        cycle_sql = ""
931
932        if cycle is not None:
933            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
934            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
935
936        sequence_opts = ""
937        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
938            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
939            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
940
941        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
942        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
943
944        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
947        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
948    ) -> str:
949        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
950        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
951        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
953    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
954        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
955    ) -> str:
956        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
958    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
959        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
961    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
962        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
964    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
966        if desc is not None:
967            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
968        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
970    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
972        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
973        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
974        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
975        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
976        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
977        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
978        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
980    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
981        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 983    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 984        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 985        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 986        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 987        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 988
 989        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 990
 991        properties_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 993            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 994        ):
 995            properties_sql = self.sql(
 996                exp.Properties(
 997                    expressions=[
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 999                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1000                    ]
1001                )
1002            )
1003
1004            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1005                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1006            elif not self.pretty:
1007                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1008                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1009
1010        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1011        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1012
1013        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        if expression_sql:
1015            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1016
1017            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1018                postalias_props_sql = ""
1019                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1020                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                        exp.Properties(
1022                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1023                        ),
1024                        wrapped=False,
1025                    )
1026                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1027                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1028
1029        postindex_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1031            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1033                wrapped=False,
1034                prefix=" ",
1035            )
1036
1037        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1038        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1039        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1040
1041        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1042        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1043        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1044
1045        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1046        if clustered is None:
1047            clustered_sql = ""
1048        elif clustered:
1049            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050        else:
1051            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1052
1053        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1054        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1055            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1056                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1057                sep=" ",
1058                prefix=" ",
1059                wrapped=False,
1060            )
1061
1062        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1063
1064        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1065        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1066            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1067                exp.Properties(
1068                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1069                ),
1070                sep=" ",
1071                prefix=" ",
1072                wrapped=False,
1073            )
1074
1075        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1076        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1077        no_schema_binding = (
1078            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1079        )
1080
1081        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1082        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1083
1084        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1085        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1087    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1088        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1089        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1090        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1091        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1092        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1093        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1094        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1095        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1096        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1097        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1098
1099        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1100        if cache is None:
1101            cache_str = ""
1102        elif cache is True:
1103            cache_str = " CACHE"
1104        else:
1105            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1106
1107        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1108        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1109
1110        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1112    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1115        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1116        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1118    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1119        style = expression.args.get("style")
1120        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1121        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1122        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1123        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1125    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1126        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1127        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1129    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1130        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1131        if with_:
1132            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1133        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1135    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1136        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        recursive = (
1138            "RECURSIVE "
1139            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1140            else ""
1141        )
1142
1143        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1145    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1146        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1147
1148        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1149        if materialized is False:
1150            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1151        elif materialized:
1152            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1153
1154        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1156    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1157        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1159        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1160
1161        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1162            columns = ""
1163            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1164
1165        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1166            alias = self._next_name()
1167
1168        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1170    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1172        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1173            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1174        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1176    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1179            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1180        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1182    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1185            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1186        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1188    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1191
1192        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1193            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1194            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1195        else:
1196            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1197            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1198
1199        if escape:
1200            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1201            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1202        else:
1203            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1204            escape_sql = ""
1205
1206        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1207            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1208
1209        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1211    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1212        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1213        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1215    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1218        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1219        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1221    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1222        nested = ""
1223        values = ""
1224        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        type_value = expression.this
1227        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1228            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1229        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1230            type_sql = (
1231                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1232                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1233                else type_value
1234            )
1235        else:
1236            return interior
1237
1238        if interior:
1239            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1240                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1241                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1242                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1243                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1244                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1245            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1246                nested = f" {interior}"
1247            else:
1248                nested = f"({interior})"
1249
1250        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1251        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1253            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1254        ):
1255            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1256
1257        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1259    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1260        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1261        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1262        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1263        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1265    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1268        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1269        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1272        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1273        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1274        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1275        if self.RETURNING_END:
1276            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1277        else:
1278            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1281    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1284        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1285        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1286        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1287        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1288        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1289        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1290        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1291        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1292        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1293        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1294        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1295        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1297    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1298        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1300    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1301        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1303    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1304        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1305        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1306        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1307        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1308        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1309            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1310        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1311        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1313    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1314        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1315            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1317            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1318
1319        agg = expression.this
1320        agg_arg = agg.this
1321        cond = expression.expression.this
1322        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1323        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1325    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1326        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1327            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1328            return ""
1329
1330        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1332    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1333        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1334        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1335        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1336        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1337        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1338        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1339        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1340        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1341        if include:
1342            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1343        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1344        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1345        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1346        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1349
1350        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1352    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1353        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1354        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1355        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1356        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1358        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1359        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1360
1361        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1362
1363        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1364        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1366    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1367        text = expression.name
1368        lower = text.lower()
1369        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1370        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1371        if (
1372            expression.quoted
1373            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1374            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1375            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1376        ):
1377            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1378        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1380    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1381        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1382        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1383            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1384
1385        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1387    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1388        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1389        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1390            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1391        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1393    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1394        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1395        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1396        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1397        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1398        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1400    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1401        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1402        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1404    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1405        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1407    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        root_properties = []
1409        with_properties = []
1410
1411        for p in expression.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1414                with_properties.append(p)
1415            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1416                root_properties.append(p)
1417
1418        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1419        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1420
1421        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1422            with_props = " " + with_props
1423
1424        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1426    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1427        if properties.expressions:
1428            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1429        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1431    def properties(
1432        self,
1433        properties: exp.Properties,
1434        prefix: str = "",
1435        sep: str = ", ",
1436        suffix: str = "",
1437        wrapped: bool = True,
1438    ) -> str:
1439        if properties.expressions:
1440            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1441            if expressions:
1442                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1443                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1444        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1446    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1447        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1449    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1450        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1451        for p in properties.expressions:
1452            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1453            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1454                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1455            else:
1456                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1457
1458        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1460    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1462            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1465    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1466        property_cls = expression.__class__
1467        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1468            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1469
1470        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1471        if not property_name:
1472            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1473
1474        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1476    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1477        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1478            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1479            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1480
1481            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1482            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1483                like = f"({like})"
1484
1485            return like
1486
1487        if expression.expressions:
1488            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1489
1490        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1491        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1493    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1496        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1498    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1499        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1500        local = expression.args.get("local")
1501        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1502        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1503        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1504        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1505        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1507    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1508        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1512    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            property = "DEFAULT"
1515        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1516            property = "ON"
1517        else:
1518            property = "OFF"
1519        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1521    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1522        if expression.args.get("no"):
1523            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1524        if expression.args.get("default"):
1525            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1526
1527        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1528        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1530    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1533        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1534        if default or minimum or maximum:
1535            if default:
1536                prop = "DEFAULT"
1537            elif minimum:
1538                prop = "MINIMUM"
1539            else:
1540                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1541            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1542        units = expression.args.get("units")
1543        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1544        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1546    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1547        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1548        always = expression.args.get("always")
1549        default = expression.args.get("default")
1550        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1551        never = expression.args.get("never")
1552
1553        if autotemp is not None:
1554            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1555        elif always:
1556            prop = "ALWAYS"
1557        elif default:
1558            prop = "DEFAULT"
1559        elif manual:
1560            prop = "MANUAL"
1561        elif never:
1562            prop = "NEVER"
1563        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1565    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1566        no = expression.args.get("no")
1567        no = " NO" if no else ""
1568        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1569        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1570        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1571        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1572        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1574    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1576            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1577        if expression.this:
1578            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1580            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1581
1582        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1583        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1584        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1586    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588
1589        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1590        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1591            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1592        else:
1593            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1594
1595        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1597    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1598        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1599        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1600        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1601        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1602        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1603        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1604        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1606    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1607        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1608        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1609        statistics_sql = ""
1610        if statistics is not None:
1611            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1612        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1614    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1617        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1618        data_consistency = (
1619            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1620        )
1621        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1622        retention_period = (
1623            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1624        )
1625
1626        if this:
1627            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1628        else:
1629            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1630
1631        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1632
1633        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1635    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1636        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1637        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1638
1639        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1640            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1641        else:
1642            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1643
1644        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1645        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1646        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1647        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1648        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1649        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1650        if is_function:
1651            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1652        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1655        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1656        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1657        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1658        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1659        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1660        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1661        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1662
1663        if self.RETURNING_END:
1664            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1665        else:
1666            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1667
1668        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1669        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1670        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1671        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1672
1673        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1674        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1676    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1677        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1679    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1680        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1682    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1683        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1685    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1686        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1687        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1690        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1692    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1693        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1695    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1696        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1698    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1699        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1700
1701        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1702        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1703
1704        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1705        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1706        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1707
1708        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1709        if expressions:
1710            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1711            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1712
1713        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1715    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1716        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1718    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1719        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1720        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1721        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1722        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1723        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1724        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1725        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1726        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1727        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1728        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1729        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1730        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1731        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1733    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1734        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1736    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1737        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1738        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1739        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1740        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1742    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1745        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1746        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1748    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1749        return ".".join(
1750            self.sql(part)
1751            for part in (
1752                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1753                expression.args.get("db"),
1754                expression.args.get("this"),
1755            )
1756            if part is not None
1757        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1759    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1760        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1761        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1762        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1763        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1764        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1765        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1767        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1768
1769        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1770        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1771            sample_pre_alias = sample
1772            sample_post_alias = ""
1773        else:
1774            sample_pre_alias = ""
1775            sample_post_alias = sample
1776
1777        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1778        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1779        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1780        joins = self.indent(
1781            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1782        )
1783        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1784
1785        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1786        if file_format:
1787            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1788            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1789            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1790
1791        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1792        if ordinality:
1793            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1794            alias = ""
1795
1796        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1797        if when:
1798            table = f"{table} {when}"
1799
1800        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1801        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1802
1803        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1804        if rows_from:
1805            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1806
1807        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1809    def tablesample_sql(
1810        self,
1811        expression: exp.TableSample,
1812        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1813    ) -> str:
1814        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1815        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1816        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1817        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1818        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1819        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1820        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1821        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1822        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1823
1824        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1825        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1826            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1827
1828        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1829        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1830            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1831
1832        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1833        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1834            expr = f"({expr})"
1835
1836        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1838    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1840
1841        if expression.this:
1842            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1843            if not expressions:
1844                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1845
1846            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1847            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1848            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1849            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1850            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1851
1852        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1853        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1854        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1855
1856        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1857        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1858            field = f"IN ({field})"
1859
1860        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1861        if include_nulls is not None:
1862            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1863        else:
1864            nulls = ""
1865
1866        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1867        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1868        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1870    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1871        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1872        kind = expression.text("kind")
1873        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1874        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1876    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1877        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1879    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1882        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1883        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1884        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1885        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1886        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1887        if self.RETURNING_END:
1888            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1889        else:
1890            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1891        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1892        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1894    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1895        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1896
1897        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1898        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1899            args = self.expressions(expression)
1900            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1901            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1902            values = (
1903                f"({values})"
1904                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1905                else values
1906            )
1907            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1908
1909        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1910        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1911        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1912
1913        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1914
1915        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1916            row = tup.expressions
1917
1918            if i == 0 and column_names:
1919                row = [
1920                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1921                ]
1922
1923            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1924
1925        if self.pretty:
1926            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1927            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1928            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1929            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1930            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1931
1932        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1933        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1934        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1936    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1937        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1939    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1940        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1941        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1942        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1944    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1945        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1947    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1948        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1949        if group_by_all is True:
1950            modifier = " ALL"
1951        elif group_by_all is False:
1952            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1953        else:
1954            modifier = ""
1955
1956        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1957
1958        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1959        grouping_sets = (
1960            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1961        )
1962
1963        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1964        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1965            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1966        else:
1967            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1968            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1969
1970        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1971        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1972            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1973        else:
1974            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1975            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1976
1977        groupings = csv(
1978            grouping_sets,
1979            cube_sql,
1980            rollup_sql,
1981            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1982            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1983        )
1984
1985        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1986            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1987
1988        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1990    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1991        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1992        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1994    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1995        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1996        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1997        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1998        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1999        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2000        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2002    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2003        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2005    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2006        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2007            side = None
2008        else:
2009            side = expression.side
2010
2011        op_sql = " ".join(
2012            op
2013            for op in (
2014                expression.method,
2015                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2016                side,
2017                expression.kind,
2018                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2019            )
2020            if op
2021        )
2022        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2023        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2024        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2025        using = expression.args.get("using")
2026
2027        if not on_sql and using:
2028            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2029
2030        this = expression.this
2031        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2032
2033        if on_sql:
2034            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2035            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2036            if using:
2037                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2038            else:
2039                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2040        elif not op_sql:
2041            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2042                return f" {this_sql}"
2043
2044            return f", {this_sql}"
2045
2046        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2047            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2048
2049        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2051    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2052        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2053        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2054        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2056    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2057        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2058
2059        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2060        if cross_apply is True:
2061            op = "INNER JOIN "
2062        elif cross_apply is False:
2063            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2064        else:
2065            op = ""
2066
2067        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2069    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2071
2072        if expression.args.get("view"):
2073            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2074            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2075            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2076            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2077            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2078            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2079
2080        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2081        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2082        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2084    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086
2087        args = [
2088            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2089            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2090            if e
2091        ]
2092
2093        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2094        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2095        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2096        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2097
2098        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2100    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        value = expression.expression
2103        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2106        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2108    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2109        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2110        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2113        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2114        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2115        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2116        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2118    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2119        expressions = (
2120            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2121        )
2122        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2123        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2125    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2126        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2128    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2129        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2130            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2131            return ""
2132
2133        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2134        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2135        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2136        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2137
2138        if wait is not None:
2139            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2140                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2141            else:
2142                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2143
2144        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2146    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2147        text = expression.this or ""
2148        if expression.is_string:
2149            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2150        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2152    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2153        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2154            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2155            text = "".join(
2156                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2157            )
2158
2159        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2160            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2161        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2163    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2164        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2165        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2166        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2167        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2168        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2169        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2170        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2171        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2172        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2173        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2174        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2176    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2177        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2179    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2180        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2182    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2184        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2185        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2186        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2188    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2189        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2190        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2191        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2192        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2193        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2194        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2195        interpolated_values = [
2196            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2197            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2198        ]
2199        interpolate = (
2200            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2201        )
2202        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2204    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2205        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2207    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2208        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2210    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2211        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2213    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2214        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2215        asc = not desc
2216
2217        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2218        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2219        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2220        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2221        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2222
2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2224
2225        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2226        nulls_sort_change = ""
2227        if nulls_first and (
2228            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2229        ):
2230            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2231        elif (
2232            nulls_last
2233            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2234            and not nulls_are_last
2235        ):
2236            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2237
2238        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2239        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2240            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2241            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2242                self.unsupported(
2243                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2244                )
2245                nulls_sort_change = ""
2246            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2247                if expression.this.is_int:
2248                    self.unsupported(
2249                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2250                    )
2251                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2252                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2253                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2254                nulls_sort_change = ""
2255
2256        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2257        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2258
2259        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2261    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2262        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2263        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2264
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266
2267        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2269    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2270        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2271        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2272        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2273        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2274        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2275        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2276        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2277        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2278        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2279        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2280        definition_sqls = [
2281            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2282            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2283        ]
2284        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2285        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2286        body = "".join(
2287            (
2288                partition,
2289                order,
2290                measures,
2291                rows,
2292                after,
2293                pattern,
2294                define,
2295            )
2296        )
2297        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2298        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2299        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2301    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2302        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2303
2304        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2305            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2306        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2307            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2308
2309        return csv(
2310            *sqls,
2311            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2312            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2313            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2314            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2315            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2318            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2319            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2320            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2321            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2322            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2323            self.options_modifier(expression),
2324            sep="",
2325        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2327    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2328        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2329        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2331    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2332        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2334    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2335        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2336    ) -> t.List[str]:
2337        return [
2338            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2339            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2340        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2342    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2343        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2344        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2345        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2347    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2348        into = expression.args.get("into")
2349        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2350            into.pop()
2351
2352        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2353        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2354        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2355        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2356
2357        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2358        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2359            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2360            limit.pop()
2361        else:
2362            top = ""
2363
2364        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2365
2366        if kind:
2367            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2368                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2369            else:
2370                if kind == "STRUCT":
2371                    expressions = self.expressions(
2372                        sqls=[
2373                            self.sql(
2374                                exp.Struct(
2375                                    expressions=[
2376                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2377                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2378                                        else e
2379                                        for e in expression.expressions
2380                                    ]
2381                                )
2382                            )
2383                        ]
2384                    )
2385                kind = ""
2386
2387        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2388        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2389        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2390        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2391        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2392            expression,
2393            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2394            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2395            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2396        )
2397
2398        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2399
2400        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2401            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2402                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2403            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2404                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2405            else:
2406                table_kind = ""
2407            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2408
2409        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2411    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2414        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2416    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2417        if expression.expressions:
2418            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2419        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2421    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2422        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2423        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2424        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2425        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2426        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2427        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2428        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2430    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2434    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        kind = expression.text("kind")
2437        if kind:
2438            kind = f"{kind}."
2439        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2441    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2442        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2444    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2445        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2446        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2447        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2448        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2449        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2451    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2452        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2453        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2455    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2456        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2457            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2458            order = expression.args.get("order")
2459
2460            if limit or order:
2461                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2462
2463                if limit:
2464                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2465                if order:
2466                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2467                return self.sql(select)
2468
2469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2471
2472        while stack:
2473            node = stack.pop()
2474
2475            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2476                stack.append(node.expression)
2477                stack.append(
2478                    self.maybe_comment(
2479                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2480                        comments=node.comments,
2481                        separated=True,
2482                    )
2483                )
2484                stack.append(node.this)
2485            else:
2486                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2487
2488        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2489        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2490        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2492    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2493        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2495    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2496        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2497        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2498        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2499        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2501    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2502        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503
2504        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2505        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2506
2507        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2508            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2509                alias.append("columns", offset)
2510
2511        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2512            columns = alias.columns
2513            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2514        else:
2515            alias = self.sql(alias)
2516
2517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2518        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2519            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2520        else:
2521            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2522                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2523            elif offset:
2524                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2525            else:
2526                suffix = alias
2527
2528        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2530    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2531        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2533    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2534        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2535        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2537    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2540        order = expression.args.get("order")
2541        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2542        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2543        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2544        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2545
2546        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2547
2548        first = expression.args.get("first")
2549        if first is None:
2550            first = ""
2551        else:
2552            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2553
2554        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2555            return f"{this} {alias}"
2556
2557        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2558        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2560    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2561        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2562        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2564    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2566        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2567        end = (
2568            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2569            or "CURRENT ROW"
2570        )
2571        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2573    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2576        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2578    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2581        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2582        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2584    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2585        return apply_index_offset(
2586            expression.this,
2587            expression.expressions,
2588            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2589        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2591    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2593        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2594        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2596    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2597        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2599    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2602            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2603                this = self.wrap(this)
2604            return f"ANY{this}"
2605        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2607    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2608        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2610    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2613
2614        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2615            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2616            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2617
2618        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2619
2620        if default:
2621            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2622
2623        statements.append("END")
2624
2625        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2626            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2627
2628        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2630    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2633        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2635    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2636        order = expression.args.get("order")
2637        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2638        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2640    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2642        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2643        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2645    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2646        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2647
2648        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2649            func_name = "LTRIM"
2650        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2651            func_name = "RTRIM"
2652        else:
2653            func_name = "TRIM"
2654
2655        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2657    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2658        args = expression.expressions
2659        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2660            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2661
2662        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2663            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2664
2665        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2666            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2667
2668        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2670    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2671        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2672
2673        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2674        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2675            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2676
2677        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2679    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2680        return self.func(
2681            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2682        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2684    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2686        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2688    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2689        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2690        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2691        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2692        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2693        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2694        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2695        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2696        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2698    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2700        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2701        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2702        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2704    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2705        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2707    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2708        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2709        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2710        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2712    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2713        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2715    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2716        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2717        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2718            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2719
2720        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2722    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2723        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2724            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2725            if not callable(transform):
2726                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2727                return ""
2728
2729            return transform(self, expression)
2730
2731        if isinstance(expression, int):
2732            return str(expression)
2733
2734        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2735            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2736            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2737        else:
2738            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2739            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2740
2741        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2743    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2746    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2747        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2748        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2749
2750        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2751        if unique_keys is not None:
2752            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2753        else:
2754            unique_keys = ""
2755
2756        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2757        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2758        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2759        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2760
2761        return self.func(
2762            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2763            *expression.expressions,
2764            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2765        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2767    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2768        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2770    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2771        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2772        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2773        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2774        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2775        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2778        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2780    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2783        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2784        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2785        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2786        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2787        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2788        return self.func(
2789            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2790            this,
2791            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2792        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2794    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2795        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2796        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2797        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2798
2799        if nested_schema:
2800            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2801
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2804        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2805        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2807    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2808        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2810    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2814        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2815        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2816        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2817        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2818        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2819        return self.func(
2820            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2821        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2823    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2827        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2828        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2829        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2831    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2834        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2835        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2836        with_ = (
2837            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2838            if expressions
2839            else ""
2840        )
2841        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2843    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2844        query = expression.args.get("query")
2845        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2846        field = expression.args.get("field")
2847        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2848
2849        if query:
2850            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2851        elif unnest:
2852            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2853        elif field:
2854            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2855        else:
2856            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2857
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2860    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2861        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2863    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2864        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2865        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2866            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2867        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2868
2869        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2870            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2871            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2872
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        if this:
2875            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2876            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2877
2878        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2880    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2881        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2883    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2886        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2887        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2888        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2889        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2891    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2892        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2894    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2895        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2896        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2898    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2899        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2900        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2902        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2904    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2905        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2907    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2908        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2909        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2912    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2913        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2914
2915        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2916        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2917
2918        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2919            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2920        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2921            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2922
2923        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2925    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2928    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2931        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2933    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2936        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2938    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2941        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2943    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2946    def and_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2951    def or_sql(
2952        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2953    ) -> str:
2954        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2956    def xor_sql(
2957        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2958    ) -> str:
2959        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2961    def connector_sql(
2962        self,
2963        expression: exp.Connector,
2964        op: str,
2965        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2966    ) -> str:
2967        if stack is not None:
2968            if expression.expressions:
2969                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2970            else:
2971                stack.append(expression.right)
2972                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2973                    for comment in expression.comments:
2974                        if comment:
2975                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2976                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2977            return op
2978
2979        stack = [expression]
2980        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2981        ops = set()
2982
2983        while stack:
2984            node = stack.pop()
2985            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2986                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2987            else:
2988                sql = self.sql(node)
2989                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2990                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2991                else:
2992                    sqls.append(sql)
2993
2994        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2995        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2997    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3000    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3003    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3004        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3006    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3007        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3009    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3010        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3012    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3013        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3015    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3016        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3017        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3018        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3019        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3020        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3021        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3022        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3024    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3025        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3028    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3029        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3030            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3031        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3033    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3036    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3039        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3040        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3044    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3047        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3048        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3049        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3050        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3051        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3052        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3053        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3055    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3056        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3057        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3058        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3059        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3060
3061        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3062            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3063
3064        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3066    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3067        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3069    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3070        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3071        if chain is not None:
3072            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3073
3074        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3076    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3077        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3078        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3079        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3081    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3083
3084        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3085        if dtype:
3086            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3087            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3088            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3089            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3090            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3091
3092        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3093        if default:
3094            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3095
3096        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3097        if comment:
3098            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3099
3100        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3101        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3102
3103        if not drop and not allow_null:
3104            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3105
3106        if allow_null is not None:
3107            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3108            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3109
3110        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3112    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3115            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3116        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3118    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3119        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3122        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3123        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3125    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3126        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3127            # Remove db from tables
3128            expression = expression.transform(
3129                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3130            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3134    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3135        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3136        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3138        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3140    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3141        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3142        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3144    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3145        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3146
3147        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3148            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3149        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3150            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3151        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3152            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3153        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3154            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3155        else:
3156            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3157
3158        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3159        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3160        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3161        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3162        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3163        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3164        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3165        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3167    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3168        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3169            return self.expressions(
3170                expression,
3171                key="actions",
3172                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3173                skip_first=True,
3174            )
3175        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3177    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3178        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3179        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3180        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3182    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3183        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3185    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3186        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3187
3188        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3189            case = exp.case()
3190            for arg in expression.expressions:
3191                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3192            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3193
3194        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3195
3196        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3197        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3198        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3200    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3201        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3203    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3204        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3206    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3207        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3209        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3210        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3212    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3213        return self.sql(
3214            exp.Cast(
3215                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3216                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3217            )
3218        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3220    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3221        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3222            return self.func(
3223                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3224            )
3225        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3227    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3228        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3229
3230        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3231            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3232
3233        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3234            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3235                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3236
3237        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3238            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3239                return self.sql(
3240                    exp.cast(
3241                        l / r,
3242                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3243                    )
3244                )
3245
3246        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3248    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3251    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3254    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3257    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3260    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3263    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3266    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3269    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3272    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3275    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3278    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3281    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3282        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3283            return self.sql(
3284                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3285            )
3286        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3288    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3291    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3294    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3297    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3300    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3303    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3306    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3309    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3312    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3315    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3316        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3318    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3319        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3321    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3324    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3325        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3327    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3328        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3329            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3330            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3331
3332        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3334    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3335        this = expression.this
3336        expr = expression.expression
3337
3338        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3339            this, expr = expr, this
3340        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3341            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3342                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3343
3344            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3345
3346        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3348    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3349        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3350        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3353        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3355    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3356        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3357        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3358        binary_type = type(expression)
3359
3360        while stack:
3361            node = stack.pop()
3362
3363            if type(node) is binary_type:
3364                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3365                if op_func:
3366                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3367
3368                stack.append(node.right)
3369                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3370                stack.append(node.left)
3371            else:
3372                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3373
3374        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3376    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3377        args = []
3378
3379        for key in expression.arg_types:
3380            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3381
3382            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3383                for value in arg_value:
3384                    args.append(value)
3385            elif arg_value is not None:
3386                args.append(arg_value)
3387
3388        if self.normalize_functions:
3389            name = expression.sql_name()
3390        else:
3391            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3392
3393        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3395    def func(
3396        self,
3397        name: str,
3398        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3399        prefix: str = "(",
3400        suffix: str = ")",
3401    ) -> str:
3402        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3404    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3405        arg_sqls = tuple(
3406            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3407        )
3408        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3409            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3410        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3412    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3413        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3415    def format_time(
3416        self,
3417        expression: exp.Expression,
3418        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3419        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3420    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3421        return format_time(
3422            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3423            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3424            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3425        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3427    def expressions(
3428        self,
3429        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3430        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3431        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3432        flat: bool = False,
3433        indent: bool = True,
3434        skip_first: bool = False,
3435        skip_last: bool = False,
3436        sep: str = ", ",
3437        prefix: str = "",
3438        dynamic: bool = False,
3439        new_line: bool = False,
3440    ) -> str:
3441        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3442
3443        if not expressions:
3444            return ""
3445
3446        if flat:
3447            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3448
3449        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3450        result_sqls = []
3451
3452        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3453            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3454            if not sql:
3455                continue
3456
3457            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3458
3459            if self.pretty:
3460                if self.leading_comma:
3461                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3462                else:
3463                    result_sqls.append(
3464                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3465                    )
3466            else:
3467                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3468
3469        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3470            if new_line:
3471                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3472                result_sqls.append("")
3473            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3474        else:
3475            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3476        return (
3477            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3478            if indent
3479            else result_sql
3480        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3482    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3483        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3484        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3485        if flat:
3486            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3487        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3489    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3490        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3491        if not property_name:
3492            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3493        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3495    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3496        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3498    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3499        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3501    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3503        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3504        expressions = (
3505            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3506        )
3507        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3509    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3512        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3514    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3515        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3517    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3518        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3519        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3520        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3521        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3522
3523        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3524        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3525            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3526            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3527            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3528            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3529        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3530            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3531                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3532            else:
3533                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3534        else:
3535            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3536        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3538    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3539        table = expression.this
3540        table_alias = ""
3541
3542        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3543        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3544            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3545            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3546
3547        this = self.sql(table)
3548        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3549        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3550        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3551        sep = self.sep()
3552
3553        return self.prepend_ctes(
3554            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3555        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3557    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3558        if expression.args.get("format"):
3559            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3560
3561        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3563    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3564        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3565            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3566            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3567
3568        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3569        if not fmt:
3570            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3571            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3572
3573        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3575    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3578        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3579        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3580        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3582    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3585        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3586        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3588    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3591    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3592        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3594    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3595        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3596        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3597        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3598        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3599        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3601    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3604
3605        if having:
3606            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3607
3608        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3610    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3611        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3612        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3613        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3614        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3615        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3616        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3617        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3618        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3619        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3620        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3621        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3622        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3623        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3625    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3626        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3627        if key_block_size:
3628            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3629
3630        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3631        if using:
3632            return f"USING {using}"
3633
3634        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3635        if parser:
3636            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3637
3638        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3639        if comment:
3640            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3641
3642        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3643        if visible is not None:
3644            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3645
3646        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3647        if engine_attr:
3648            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3649
3650        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3651        if secondary_engine_attr:
3652            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3653
3654        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3655        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3657    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3658        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3659        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3661    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3662        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3663        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3665        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3666        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3667        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3669        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3670        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3671        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3672        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3674    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3675        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3676            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3677
3678        case = exp.Case().when(
3679            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3680            expression.args["true"],
3681            copy=False,
3682        )
3683        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3684        if else_cond:
3685            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3686
3687        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3689    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3692        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3693        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3694        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3695        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3697    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3700    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3703    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3704        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3705        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3706        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3707        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3708        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3709        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3711    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3713        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3714        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3716    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3719        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3721    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3722        arg = expression.this
3723        if not arg.type:
3724            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3725
3726            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3727
3728        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3729            return self.sql(arg)
3730
3731        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3732        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3734    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3735        this = expression.this
3736        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3737            return self.sql(this)
3738
3739        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3741    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3742        this = expression.this
3743        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3744            return self.sql(this)
3745
3746        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3748    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3749        this = expression.this
3750        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3751
3752        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3753            return self.sql(
3754                exp.cast(
3755                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3756                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3757                )
3758            )
3759
3760        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3761            return self.sql(this)
3762
3763        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3765    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3766        return self.sql(
3767            exp.func(
3768                "DATEDIFF",
3769                expression.this,
3770                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3771                "day",
3772            )
3773        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3775    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3776        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3777            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3778
3779        unit = expression.text("unit")
3780        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3781            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3782
3783        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3785    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3786        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3787
3788        return self.func(
3789            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3790        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3792    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3793        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3794            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3795            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3796            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3797            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3798
3799        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3800
3801        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3802        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3803            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3804
3805        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3807    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3808        expression.set(
3809            "expressions",
3810            [
3811                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3812                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3813                else e
3814                for e in expression.expressions
3815            ],
3816        )
3817
3818        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3820    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3821        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823
3824        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3826    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3827        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3828        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3829
3830        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3831
3832        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3833        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3834
3835        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3836        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3837
3838        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3839        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3840
3841        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3842        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3843
3844        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3848    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3849        to = expression.this
3850        value = expression.expression
3851        style = expression.args.get("style")
3852        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3853        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3854
3855        if not to or not value:
3856            return ""
3857
3858        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3859        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3860            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3861
3862        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3863        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3864
3865        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3866        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3867            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3868
3869            style_value = style.name
3870            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3871            if not converted_style:
3872                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3873
3874            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3875
3876            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3877                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3878            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3879                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3880            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3881                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3882            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3883                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3884
3885        if not transformed:
3886            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3887
3888        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3944    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3945        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3946
3947        if expression.expressions:
3948            upper = option.upper()
3949
3950            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3951            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3952
3953            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3954            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3955            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3956            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3957
3958        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3959
3960        if not value:
3961            return option
3962
3963        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3964
3965        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3967    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3968        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3969        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3970            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3971            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3972            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3973        else:
3974            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3975            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3976            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3977
3978        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3979        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3980
3981        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3982        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3983
3984        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3985        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3986
3987        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3988        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3989
3990        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3992    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3995
3996        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3997        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3998        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3999        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4000
4001        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4002        params = self.expressions(
4003            expression,
4004            key="params",
4005            sep=sep,
4006            new_line=True,
4007            skip_last=True,
4008            skip_first=True,
4009            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4010        )
4011
4012        if params:
4013            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4014                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4015            elif not self.pretty:
4016                params = f" {params}"
4017
4018        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4020    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4021        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4023    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4024        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4025        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4026        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4027        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4028        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4029
4030        if filter_col or retention_period:
4031            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4032
4033        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4035    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4036        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4037    ) -> str:
4038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4039        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4040        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4041        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4043    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4045        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4046        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4048    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4049        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4051    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053        expr = expression.expression
4054
4055        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4056            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4057            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4058        else:
4059            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4060
4061        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4063    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4064        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4065            return self.sql(expression.this)
4066
4067        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4069    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4070        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4071        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4072
4073        if lower and upper:
4074            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4075        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4077    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4078        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4079        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4080        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4081        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4082        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4083        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4084
4085        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4087    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4088        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4089
4090        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4091        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4092            fill_pattern = "' '"
4093
4094        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4096    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4097        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4098        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4100    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4101        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4102
4103        parent = expression.parent
4104        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4105            parent = parent.parent
4106
4107        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4108            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4109
4110        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4111            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4112
4113        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4115    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4116        exprs = expression.expressions
4117        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4118            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4119        else:
4120            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4121
4122        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4124    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4125        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4126            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4127
4128        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4129        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4130        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4131
4132        if source_tz and timestamp:
4133            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4134                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4135            )
4136
4137        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4138
4139        return self.sql(expr)